INTRODUCTION
1 Wang Shunan, ed., Xinjiang tuzhi, vol. 6, 3952–53. My thanks to David Brophy for bringing this telegram to my attention.
2 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 186–90, 194–202.
3 Newby, The Empire and the Khanate; Millward, Beyond the Pass; and Millward, Eurasian Crossroads.
4 Millward, Eurasian Crossroads, 136–58; and Rowe, China’s Last Empire, 209–12.
5 Kim, Holy War in China.
6 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Xinjiang bianfang, 14.
7 For an analysis of post-1911 Chinese discourse about the non-Han borderlands, see Leibold, Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism.
8 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 4, 2; Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 1, 56–57; and Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 6, 3741.
9 On the “politics of difference,” see Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History.
10 Bulag, “Going Imperial,” 260–95.
11 This is the Mongolian and Turkic name for the capital, as well as that used by Russian and British consular staff and almost all foreign travelers to the province. In light of the fact that the Chinese Communists also adopted an official Chinese version of this name after 1949 (Wulumuqi in pinyin and Urumqi in official, pinyin-inflected English), I will stick with the pre-1949 informal version throughout this study. In their communications to one another during the late Qing and Republican eras, Chinese officials usually referred to the city as Dihua (“to direct onto the right path” or “to civilize”). Informally, however, they too had other names for it: Xinjiang Sheng (“the provincial seat”), Hong Miaozi (“the red temple,” so named for a prominent temple on a hill), and Shengshang (“at the provincial capital”).
12 For previous studies of ethnic conflict in Republican Xinjiang, drawn from British and American archives, Russian archives, and open source Chinese narratives and news reports, see Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia; Benson, The Ili Rebellion; David D. Wang, Under the Soviet Shadow; Barmin, SSSR i Sin’tszian, 1918–1941; and Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949 gg.
13 The term imperial formation is taken from Stoler et al., Imperial Formations.
14 On the phrase empire of nations, see Hirsch, Empire of Nations.
15 On minzu diguo, see the discussion in the Conclusion.
16 Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 8.
17 Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire; Hirsch, Empire of Nations; and Edgar, Tribal Nation.
18 Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation.
19 Porter, The Absent-Minded Imperialists, 8.
20 Owen Lattimore, China Memoirs, 26.
21 This was the fate that befell each of the individual contributors to Starr, Xinjiang.
22 For a summary of the affair, see Langfitt, “Why a Chinese Government Think Tank Attacked American Scholars.”
1. IMPERIAL REPERTOIRES IN REPUBLICAN XINJIANG
1 Xie, Xinjiang youji, 125.
2 Qing Xuebu, ed., Xuebu guanbao, 463–64. My thanks to Eric Schluessel for bringing this source to my attention.
3 Liu Qin, Wang Shunan shixue yanjiu, 18–28.
4 Pelliot, “Trois ans dans la Haute Asie,” 12.
5 Liu, Wang Shunan shixue yanjiu, 54, 59–60; and Mannerheim, Across Asia, 64.
6 Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 3.
7 Mair, “The North(west)ern Peoples,” 46–84.
8 Millward, Beyond the Pass, 158; Millward, “A Uyghur Muslim in Qianlong’s Court,” 438; and Wang Hui, The Politics of Imagining Asia, 157.
9 Barkey, Empire of Difference, 10.
10 Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 13–14.
11 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 46.
12 Cannadine, Ornamentalism, 113.
13 Brophy, “Five Races, One Parliament?” 353–58.
14 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 113; and Mirsky, Sir Aurel Stein, 287.
15 For primary documents on the 1912 Hami uprising, see Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 287–346. For an excellent secondary analysis of these and other related documents, see Li Xincheng, Yang Zengxin zai Xinjiang, 65–72.
16 Xie, Xinjiang youji, 245. Though the beg system was abolished on paper after 1884, it continued to function without significant modification on the ground.
17 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Xinjiang yu E Su shangye maoyi dang’an shiliao, 112–14.
18 Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 14.
19 Eleanor Lattimore, Turkestan Reunion, 112.
20 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Zhongdong tielu, 148.
21 Xu, Xu Xusheng xiyou riji, 235.
22 Andreas, Rise of the Red Engineers.
23 Wakeman, “The Shun Interregnum of 1644,” 91.
24 Mair, “The North(west)ern Peoples,” 51–53; and Zhao, “Reinventing China,” 1–28.
25 Mair, “The North(west)ern Peoples,” 51–53; Mullaney, “Critical Han Studies: Introduction and Prolegomenon,” 1–20; and Elliott, “Hushuo,” 173–90.
26 Zhongyang yanjiuyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Xinjiang bianfang, 245.
27 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 28.
28 Ibid., 35, 55.
29 Owen Lattimore, High Tartary, 85; and Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 187.
30 Li Xincheng, Yang Zengxin zai Xinjiang, 174–75.
31 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 56, 122.
32 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 2, 14–15.
33 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 74.
34 Li Xincheng, Yang Zengxin zai Xinjiang, 21–22.
35 Ibid., 129.
36 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 2, 53.
37 Ibid.
38 Dan, “Xinjiang lüxing ji,” vol. 5, 2686.
39 Millward, “A Uyghur Muslim in Qianlong’s Court,” 427–58.
40 Garnaut, “From Yunnan to Xinjiang,” 101.
41 Brophy, “Correcting Transgressions in the House of Islam,” 276, 291.
42 Huang Wenbi, Huang Wenbi Meng Xin kaocha riji, 183.
43 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 1, 6–7.
44 Ibid., vol. 2, 14.
45 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 366.
46 Field diary entry for September 20, 1913. Papers of Sir Marc Aurel Stein, MS 215.
47 Xie, Xinjiang youji, 244–245.
2. COLLAPSE OF EMPIRES AND THE NATIONALIST THREAT
1 Esherick, Ancestral Leaves, 141.
2 For an exception to this long-standing trend, see Fuller, “North China Famine Revisited,” 1–31.
3 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 4, 1913.
4 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian yu yiban jiaoshe (yi), 13.
5 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 4, 1925, 2040, 2052.
6 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian yu yiban jiaoshe (yi), 13.
7 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 4, 1917–18.
8 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian yu yiban jiaoshe (yi), 15.
9 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 4, 1981.
10 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian yu yiban jiaoshe (yi), 115, 120.
11 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Xinjiang bianfang, 293–94.
12 When Chinese archaeologist Xu Bingxu visited Urumchi in 1928, he met with Fan Yaonan, the provincial commissioner for foreign affairs, who informed Xu that “Xinjiang only maintains relations with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Finance. We have no dealings whatsoever with the Office of the President.” Xu, Xu Xusheng xiyou riji, 195.
13 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 6, 3625.
14 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 2, 11.
15 Luo, “Yang Zengxin, Feng Yuxiang zhijian de maodun he Xinjiang ‘sanqi’ zhengbian,” 74.
16 Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao qishi nian, vol. 2, 666.
17 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Xinjiang bianfang, 193, 234.
18 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian (Zhonghua minguo jiu nian), 81.
19 Brophy “Tending to Unite?” 178–87.
20 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 9, 5.
21 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 6, 3678–79.
22 Burbank and Cooper, Empires in World History, 9.
23 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 6, 3.
24 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Zhongdong tielu, E zhengbian, 129–30.
25 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 8, 24.
26 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 1, 39.
27 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian (Zhonghua minguo jiu nian), 85; Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 9, 4; Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Yiban jiaoshe, 122; and Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian (Zhonghua minguo jiu nian), 326. On developments in Soviet Central Asia, see Brophy, “Tending to Unite?”
28 On the death of Ma Fuxing, see Ma Fushou, “Yang Zengxin jianchu Ma Fuxing mudu ji,” 72. For the view from the archives of the British consulate in Kashgar, see Forbes, Warlords and Muslims, 21–28.
29 Gao Jian and Zhao Jiangming, “Minguo qianqi Xinjiang shengyi hui yanjiu,” 44.
30 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 2, 14.
31 Ibid., 15–16.
32 Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 3. See also Edgar, Tribal Nation.
33 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian (Zhonghua minguo jiu nian), 81.
34 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 4, 2; and vol. 2, 15–16.
35 Owen Lattimore, High Tartary, 211–12.
36 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 4, 2, 18, 15.
37 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: E zhengbian (Zhonghua minguo jiu nian), 81.
38 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 3, 27, 31–32. See also Xiaoyuan Liu, Reins of Liberation, 64.
39 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu xubian, vol. 2, 54.
40 Quṭluğ Ḥaji and Yaʿqub Aḫund, “Kašğardan mektub,” Terjüman, February 17, 1913, 2. Cited in David Brophy, “New Methods on the New Frontier: Jadidism in Xinjiang,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (forthcoming).
41 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Xinjiang bianfang, 34.
42 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 1, 13.
43 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Yiban jiaoshe, 213.
44 Share, “The Russian Civil War in Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang), 1918–1921,” 414.
45 Brophy, “Tending to Unite,” 317–53.
46 Field diary entry for October 18, 1930. Papers of Sir Marc Aurel Stein, MS 224.
47 Brophy, “Tending to Unite,” 267–68.
48 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Xinjiang yu E Su shangye maoyi dang’an shiliao, 151–52.
49 Cai and Cai, “Qianding ‘Yili linshi tongshang xieding,’” 70–78.
50 Brophy, “Tending to Unite,” 165–67.
51 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di san ji: Waijiao, 725; and Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Yiban jiaoshe, 322.
52 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di san ji: Waijiao, 725.
53 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo, ed., Zhong E guanxi shiliao: Yiban jiaoshe, 267.
54 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Xinjiang yu E Su shangye maoyi dang’an shiliao, 231.
55 Huangfu, “Internalizing the West,” 229, 262–74; and Larsen, Tradition, Treaties, and Trade, 95.
56 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 5, 22.
57 The five Chinese consulates were located in Semipalatinsk, Almaty, Tashkent, Andijan, and Zaysan. From 1925 to 1931, the consul-general was stationed at the Semipalatinsk office. Thereafter the consulate-general was relocated to Tashkent. On paper, Xinjiang’s consulates were formally under the jurisdiction of the Chinese embassy in Moscow. In reality, however, the Chinese staff in the Moscow embassy knew virtually nothing about the personnel and daily affairs of Yang’s five consulates. On one occasion, embassy staff in Moscow reported on a “suspicious” person—one of Yang’s consulate employees—“masquerading” as a Chinese diplomatic “representative” during a visit to Moscow. See Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu sanbian, vol. 1, 26–29.
58 Ibid., vol. 5, 26.
59 Ibid., vol. 1, 33.
60 Ibid., vol. 6, 52–53.
61 Ibid., 71–74.
62 I have drawn the details of Yang’s daily routine from Guang, Guang Lu huiyilu, 52–53.
63 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Xinjiang yu E Su shangye maoyi dang’an shiliao, 236.
64 Chai, “Qi qi zhengbian qinjian pianduan,” 76–77.
65 For an in-depth analysis of the July 7 assassination, see Jacobs, “Empire Besieged,” 215–35. In Chinese, see Luo, “Yang Zengxin, Feng Yuxiang zhijian”; Fan, Xinjiang “sanqi” zhengbian xie’an zhenxiang; Chai, “Qi qi zhengbian qinjian pianduan”; and Luo, “Fan Yaonan zhuanlüe,” 156–81.
66 Xu, Xu Xusheng xiyou riji, 264.
67 Ibid., 194.
68 Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 5, 2614.
69 Xu, Xu Xusheng xiyou riji, 209.
70 Huang Wenbi, Huang Wenbi Meng Xin kaocha riji, 157.
71 Yang Zengxin, Buguozhai wendu, vol. 1, 188.
72 Field diary entry for January 1–2, 1931. Papers of Sir Marc Aurel Stein, MS 224.
73 Li Sheng, Xinjiang dui Su (E) maoyi shi, 1600–1990, 345–46.
74 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Xinjiang yu E Su shangye maoyi dang’an shiliao, 237.
75 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 13.
76 Xu, Xu Xusheng xiyou riji, 235.
77 Liu Cao, Liu Jie, and Wang Xianhui, “Duo huofo zhi si,” 48–54.
78 Chen Chao and Chen Huisheng, Minguo Xinjiang shi, 229–30; Fu, “Shilun Yang Zengxin zhuzheng Xinjiang shiqi de ‘ruobing zhengce,’” 34; and Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Jiaotong Shizhi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, ed., Xinjiang gonglu jiaotong shi, 20–21, 24.
79 Field diary entry for October 3, 1930. Papers of Sir Marc Aurel Stein, MS 224.
80 Xie, Xinjiang youji, 87; and Lin Jing, Xibei congbian, 230–31.
81 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Ma Zhongying zai Xinjiang dang’an shiliao xuanbian, 61.
82 Brophy, “The Qumul Rebels’ Appeal to Outer Mongolia.”
83 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Ma Zhongying zai Xinjiang dang’an shiliao xuanbian, 110.
84 See Millward, Eurasian Crossroads, 188–206.
85 Brophy, “The Qumul Rebels’ Appeal to Outer Mongolia,” 334.
86 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Ma Zhongying zai Xinjiang dang’an shiliao xuanbian, 88; and Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 6, 3393–94.
87 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di yi bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 506, 492.
3. RISE OF THE ETHNOPOPULISTS
1 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di yi bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 484–85, 567.
2 Ibid., 522.
3 Ibid., 522, 486, 527, 523.
4 Ibid., 522–24, 544–46.
5 Ibid., 546, 574–77.
6 Cai Jinsong, Sheng Shicai zai Xinjiang, 126, 129–30.
7 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 2–3–1156, 9–14.
8 Barmin, SSSR i Sin’tszian, 1918–1941, 84–86; and Xue, Zhong Su guanxi shi (1945–1949), 211–13.
9 For a summary of the Soviet archival documents in question, see Xue, Zhong Su guanxi shi, 215. For a complete translation of the same documents into Chinese, see Shen, ed., Eguo jiemi dang’an: Xinjiang wenti, 2–3, 8.
10 Barmin, SSSR i Sin’tszian, 1918–1941, 116, 124–25.
11 Brophy, “Tending to Unite?” 6.
12 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 2–2–105, 89–90.
13 RGASPI, f. 558 op. 11 d. 323, l. 1–28; and RGASPI, f. 558, op. 11, d. 323, l. 54–58.
14 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di yi bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 559.
15 Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 6, 3071; and Huang Jianhua, “Jin Shuren an tanxi,” 47.
16 For a collection of facsimile reprints from Frontier Bell (Bianduo), one of the more prominent of these journals, see Jiang et al., eds., Minguo bianshi yanjiu wenxian huibian, vol. 2, 31–76.
17 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di yi bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 527; and Luo, “Ai-sha xiaozhuan,” 61–64.
18 Mao, “A Muslim Vision for the Chinese Nation,” 373–95.
19 For a biased yet informative biography of Masud Sabri, see chapter 6 of Liu Xianghui and Chen Wuguo, Yinmo Gebi de lishi suipian, 176–219; and Luo, “Zhongsheng wuguo—minguo shiqi Xinjiang sheng di ba ren zhuxi Maisiwude de yi sheng,” 60–64.
20 Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 6, 3128; and Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di yi bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 561–65.
21 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di yi bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 558.
22 Ibid., 559–60.
23 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di er bian: Zhengzhi (si), 789.
24 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Jiaotong Shizhi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, ed., Xinjiang gonglu jiaotong shi, 28–29; Cai, Sheng Shicai zai Xinjiang, 196–98, 207; and Zhu, Xinjiang geming shi, 25–29.
25 Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia, 125–26; RGASPI f. 17 op. 162 d. 18, l. 170–72; RGASPI f. 17, op. 162, d. 19, l. 44; RGASPI f. 17, op. 162, d. 20, l. 26, 43, 51, 62–63; RGASPI f. 17, op. 162, d. 20, l. 115, 8, 18, 11–12, 181; and Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 110.19/0002, “Zhu Xin bian wu guan shiwu” [Affairs of the five consulates stationed along Xinjiang’s borders], 40.
26 Brophy, “Tending to Unite.”
27 Gongqingtuan Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui and Balujun Zhu Xinjiang Banshichu Jinian Guan, eds., Xinjiang minzhong fandi lianhe hui ziliao huibian, 9; and Brophy, “Tending to Unite,” 371–85.
28 Gongqingtuan Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui and Balujun Zhu Xinjiang Banshichu Jinian Guan, eds., Xinjiang minzhong fandi lianhe hui ziliao huibian, 20, 183.
29 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 50.
30 Gongqingtuan Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui and Balujun Zhu Xinjiang Banshichu Jinian Guan, eds., Xinjiang minzhong fandi lianhe hui ziliao huibian, 102.
31 Ibid., 100, 104, 107.
32 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 146, 423.
33 Ibid., 151.
34 Ibid., 49–50.
35 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 2–6–962, 13–14.
36 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 80.
37 Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire, 21–22.
38 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 2–6–962, 36, 100.
39 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 264.
40 Ibid., 73.
41 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Caizheng Ting et al., eds., Geming licaijia Mao Zemin, 133.
42 Ibid.
43 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 13, 183.
44 Ibid., vol. 11, 508; and vol. 10, 678.
45 Ibid., vol. 13, 131; vol. 10, 184; vol. 10, 95; and vol. 11, 134.
46 Zhonggong Hetian Diwei Dangshi Bangongshi, ed., Kang Ri zhanzheng shiqi Zhonggong dangren zai Hetian, 66, 63.
47 Hami Diqu Difangzhi Bangongshi and Hami Diqu Caizheng Chu, eds., Mao Zemin yu Hami caizheng, 189, 170.
48 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 2–5–628, 51–52.
49 Ibid., 3–1–53, 67; and 2–6–933, 2–14.
50 Gongqingtuan Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui and Balujun Zhu Xinjiang Banshichu Jinian Guan, eds., Xinjiang minzhong fandi lianhe hui ziliao huibian, 129; and Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 3–1–53, 66.
51 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Kang Ri zhanzheng shiqi Xinjiang ge minzu minzhong kang Ri mujuan dang’an shiliao, 19.
52 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 175, 192.
53 Hami Diqu Difangzhi Bangongshi and Hami Diqu Caizheng Chu, eds., Mao Zemin yu Hami caizheng, 329.
54 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Kang Ri zhanzheng shiqi Xinjiang ge minzu minzhong kang Ri mujuan dang’an shiliao, 204–5; and Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 2–6–933, 87.
55 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 68.
56 Ibid., 66–67.
57 Ibid., 85.
58 Zhonggong Hetian Diwei Dangshi Bangongshi, ed., Kang Ri zhanzheng shiqi Zhonggong dangren zai Hetian, 22, 41–42, 55–56; and “Politburo decisions between 11 December 1937 and 21 January 1938,” RGASPI F.17 op. 162, d. 22, l. 101–2.
59 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 259–60.
60 Zhonggong Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui et al., eds., Balujun zhu Xinjiang banshichu, 38–40; and Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di er bian: Zhengzhi (si), 787.
61 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Ju et al., eds., Jindai Xinjiang menggu lishi dang’an, 176.
62 Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 8, 4330–31.
63 Zhonggong Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui et al., eds., Balujun zhu Xinjiang banshichu, 28; Kinzley, “Staking Claims to China’s Borderland,” 190–91.
64 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 305.
65 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, 2–6–961, 52–53.
66 Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 8, 4342–46.
67 Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Dang’an Guan, ed., Xinjiang yu E Su shangye maoyi dang’an shiliao, 496–98, 502–6; and Kinzley, “Staking Claims to China’s Borderland,” 293–95.
68 Gongqingtuan Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui and Balujun Zhu Xinjiang Banshichu Jinian Guan, eds., Xinjiang minzhong fandi lianhe hui ziliao huibian, 247, 337.
69 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 11, 116.
70 Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 9, 5193–95.
71 Cai, Sheng Shicai zai Xinjiang, 344; and Gao Sulan, “Zhanshi guomin zhengfu shili jinru Xinjiang shimo,” 160.
4. RAISING THE STAKES IN NATIONALIST XINJIANG
1 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 607.6/0005, “Xinjiang diaocha baogao.”
2 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 13, 64–65.
3 Ibid., vol. 10, 158–59, 302; and vol. 11, 261.
4 The standard accounts in English are Forbes, Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia, 163–228; Benson, The Ili Rebellion; and David D. Wang, Under the Soviet Shadow.
5 RGASPI F. 17, Op. 162, D. 37, ll. 76–78; and Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949 gg., 75, 84, 71–72.
6 National Archives of the United States, Foreign Service Inspection Reports, Record Group 59, 2–3. I am indebted to Charles Kraus, who has allowed me to reproduce this quote from among his research materials.
7 Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949, 75–78.
8 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 196.
9 Ibid., 197.
10 Ibid., 195–96, 200–202.
11 Ibid., 202, 199, 204.
12 Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949, 76–77; and Xue, Zhong Su guanxi shi, 195–97.
13 Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949, 78, 84; and GARF, Fond R-9401ss, Opis’ 2, Delo 95, ll. 334–38.
14 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 110.19/0002, “Zhu Xin bian wuling shiwu,” 36, 42; Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 238–40.
15 Waijiaobu, Waijiaobu dang’an congshu—jiewu lei: Xinjiang juan, vol. 1, 208–11, 224, 225, 228.
16 Ibid., 228.
17 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 110.19/0004, “Su difang dangju dui wo Xin bian ge guan daiyu,” 8, 17–18.
18 Ibid., 55, 78.
19 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 110.19/0002, 122; and 110.19/0004, 32, 19.
20 Kinzley, “Staking Claims to China’s Borderland,” 246n132.
21 Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949, 76–77; Zhang Dajun, Xinjiang fengbao, vol. 9, 5198–5103; and Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 232.
22 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 236, 247, 249.
23 Cai, Sheng Shicai zai Xinjiang, 394–96.
24 Ibid., 397.
25 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 430.
26 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 10, 146–47, 592–96.
27 Ibid., 254–58, 358–68; and vol. 11, 422–24.
28 Ibid., vol. 11, 373; vol. 10, 286, 702; vol. 12, 119; vol. 11, 425; vol. 10, 303; and vol. 12, 55–56.
29 Ibid., vol. 11, 72–74, 190–91, 431; and vol. 12, 57–62.
30 Ibid., vol. 11, 352.
31 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 289.
32 GARF, Fond R-9401ss, Opis’ 2, Delo 100, 270–72; and Xinjiang Shaoshu Minzu Shehui Lishi Diaocha Zu, ed., Sanqu geming ziliao huibian, vol. 5, 4–6.
33 Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949, 80–81.
34 GARF, Fond R-9401ss, Opis’ 2, Delo 95, ll. 334–38; GARF, Fond R-9401ss, Opis’ 2, Delo 95, ll. 352–59; and GARF, Fond 9401ss, Opis’ 2, Delo 100, ll. 354–57;
35 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 12, 332.
36 Ibid., vol. 10, 101, 116, 457; and Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 241.
37 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 10, 354, 373, 424; and vol. 11, 629.
38 Ibid., vol. 10, 242; and vol. 11, 505.
39 Ibid., vol. 13, 146–47; vol. 11, 473; and vol. 10, 737.
40 Gonganbu Dang’an Guan, ed., Zai Jiang Jieshi shenbian ba nian, 306–7, 312.
41 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 238, 254; and Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 10, 736.
42 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 13, 95–96, 146.
43 Ibid., vol. 12, 199–200.
44 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 449.
45 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 13, 218, 378.
46 Ibid., 240–44, 516–18; and Xue, Zhong Su guanxi shi, 203–4.
47 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 251, 262–63, 271, 278, 333, 337.
48 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 13, 477.
49 Once it became apparent that the Soviets did not intend to uphold their end of the bargain—i.e., that Moscow not intervene in Chinese borderland politics—the Nationalists quickly retracted their recognition of an independent Mongol state. To this day, official government maps produced by the Republic of China on Taiwan still claim Outer Mongolia as part of Chinese territory. After 1949, the Chinese Communists continued to expect that the Soviets would return Mongolia to the Chinese fold. Mao was privately livid when they did not. He did, however, consent to formal recognition of the Mongol state during the 1950s, something the Communists would regret after the Sino-Soviet split. See Radchenko, “The Soviets’ Best Friend in Asia”; and Luthi, The Sino-Soviet Split, 37, 41.
50 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 265.
51 Ibid., 272, 281, 279.
52 Ibid., 277, 290.
53 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 309.
54 Xue, Zhong Su guanxi shi, 227–29. The text of the request also appears in Soviet archives, dated September 15, 1945. See RGASPI F. 17. Op. 162, D. 37, ll. 150–51.
55 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 325, 356.
56 Xue, Zhong Su guanxi shi, 231–32.
57 GARF, Fond 9401ss, Opis’ 2, Delo 100; and GARF, Fond 9401ss, Opis’ 2, Delo 100, ll. 354–57.
58 Ibid., 236; Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949, 58; and Xinjiang Sanqu Geming Shi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, ed., Xinjiang sanqu geming dashiji, 6.
59 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 291, 288, 269.
60 Ibid., 327.
61 Xinjiang Shaoshu Minzu Shehui Lishi Diaocha Zu, ed., Sanqu geming ziliao huibian, vol. 1, 7.
62 “Charges by Secretary General Aisabek of Chinese Oppression of the Natives of Sinkiang” November 20, 1947, National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Division of Chinese Affairs, 893.00 Sinkiang/11-2047.
63 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 365; and Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 376.
64 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 441, 443.
65 Ibid., 464–65.
66 Xinjiang Shaoshu Minzu Shehui Lishi Diaocha Zu, ed., Sanqu geming ziliao huibian, vol. 1, 14; and Freeman, “Whose Martyr?” Some of these quotations are taken from draft translations of Khan Tengri articles provided to me by Ulug Kuzuoglu. The Khan Tengri journals are held at the Hoover Institution at Stanford.
67 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 408.
68 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 10, 196–97.
69 Ibid., 196.
70 Ibid., vol. 13, 482–85; and vol. 12, 82–83. For a short biography of Delilhan, see Xinjiang Sanqu Geming Shi Bianzuan Weiyuanhui, ed., Xinjiang sanqu geming dashiji, 11.
71 Gansu Sheng Guji Wenxian Zhengli Bianyi Zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 11, 577–78; and vol. 12, 83, 152, 268–69.
72 Ibid., vol. 13, 389, 479.
73 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 246, 424, 269.
74 Barmin, Sin’tszian v sovetsko-kitaiskikh otnosheniiakh, 1941–1949, 106; Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 360, 389; and Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 604.1/0001, “Xinjiang Zhong Su jingji hezuo fang’an,” 2.
75 Masud’s pending appointment and the Generalissimo’s hand in the arrangement were leaked to the Western media about a month before he assumed his post. See Drake, “Chiang Backing of Turks Likely to Prove Costly,” Los Angeles Times, May 1, 1947.
76 Drake, “Russ India Push Seen in Sinkiang,” Los Angeles Times, June 15, 1947; and “Wei Maisiwude jiuren bensheng zhuxi Zhang zhuren yu sheng canyiyuan laihui hanjian,” 24.
77 Quoted in Ondřej Klimeš, Struggle by the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest, c. 1900–1949 (Leiden: Brill, 2015), 201–2.
78 “Cong Maisiwude dao Baoerhan,” 8.
79 My thanks to Hamit Zakir, David Brophy, and Eric Schluessel for their help in deciphering the Uighur calligraphy and its translation into English. On the ethnic initiatives of Zhang Zhizhong during the second half of 1947, see Jacobs, “How Chinese Turkestan Became Chinese,” 545–91. I have revised some of my assertions from the original article, which mistakenly portrayed Uighur “resistance” as both undetected and disapproved by Nationalist authorities.
80 Xinjiang Shaoshu Minzu Shehui Lishi Diaocha Zu, ed., Sanqu geming ziliao huibian, vol. 6, 104; and vol. 1, 68–69, 75, 93–107.
81 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 112.93/0001, “Mengjun qin Xin,” 25; and Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 355.
82 Zhou Dongjiao, Xinjiang shinian, 301.
83 For the complex course of events leading up to and succeeding the Baytik incident, see Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 2, 182–234.
84 Ibid., vol. 1, 343–44.
85 Xinjiang Shaoshu Minzu Shehui Lishi Diaocha Zu, ed., Sanqu geming ziliao huibian, vol. 1, 58–61, 101.
86 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 361.
5. THE BIRTH PANGS OF CHINESE AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
1 Zhonggong Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui et al., eds., Xinjiang heping jiefang, 306.
2 For a summary of political events in Xinjiang during the 1949 takeover, including the fate of the ETR, see Jacobs, “Empire Besieged,” 455–78.
3 Taylor, The Generalissimo, 141–335.
4 Zhonggong Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui Dangshi Yanjiushi, ed., Zhongguo gongchandang yu minzu quyu zizhi zhidu de jianli he fazhan, vol. 1, 68, 305.
5 Chiang, China’s Destiny and Chinese Economic Theory, 39–40; and Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 398–99.
6 Xinjiang Sheng Di Yi Jie Renmin Daibiao Dahui Di Er Ci Huiyi Mishuchu, ed., Xinjiang Weiwuer zizhiqu chengli tekan, 177–390.
7 For an extended study of Nationalist geopolitical pragmatism amid uncompromising public discourse, see Hsiao-ting Lin, Tibet and Nationalist China’s Frontier.
8 Bachman, “Making Xinjiang Safe for the Han?” 156, 176.
9 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 1, 365–66.
10 Hirsch, Empire of Nations.
11 Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation.
12 Zhonggong Zhongyang Wenxian Yanjiushi and Zhonggong Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui, eds., Xinjiang gongzuo wenxian, 187–93.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid., 94, 97–101; and Wang Enmao, Wang Enmao wenji, vol. 1, 226.
15 Brubaker et al., Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity.
16 Zhang Dajun, Hengdu Kunlun san wan li, 43.
17 An example of the former is Cluj-Napoca, home to an 80:20 ratio between Romanians and Hungarians, while the latter phenomenon was evident in Târgu Mureș, much closer to a 50:50 split. See Brubaker et al., Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity.
18 For Maoist discourse criticizing “discrimination” against the minorities in matters of socialist and economic development, see Zhonggong Zhongyang Wenxian Yanjiushi and Zhonggong Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui, eds., Xinjiang gongzuo wenxian, 141, 196–97.
19 Zhonggong Wulumuqi Shi Weiyuanhui Dangshi Gongzuo Weiyuanhui and Wulumuqi Shi Dang’an Ju, eds., Zhongguo gongchandang Wulumuqi shi weiyuanhui wenjian xuanbian, 354, 639.
20 Dave, Kazakhstan.
21 Chu Anping, Xinjiang xin mianmao, 227–34.
22 Wang Enmao, Wang Enmao wenji, vol. 1, 305.
23 Zhonggong Wulumuqi Shi Weiyuanhui Dangshi Gongzuo Weiyuanhui and Wulumuqi Shi Dang’an Ju, eds., Zhongguo gongchandang Wulumuqi shi weiyuanhui wenjian xuanbian, 75, 298, 353–54, 392, 464, 536.
24 Ibid., 574–78, 625, 637, 671.
25 Ibid., 670.
26 Ibid., 334, 354–55; and Quanguo Renmin Daibiao Dahui Minzu Weiyuanhui Bangongshi, ed., Xinjiang Weiwuer zizhiqu ruogan diaocha cailiao huibian, 95.
27 Zhonggong Wulumuqi Shi Weiyuanhui Dangshi Gongzuo Weiyuanhui and Wulumuqi Shi Dang’an Ju, eds., Zhongguo gongchandang Wulumuqi shi weiyuanhui wenjian xuanbian, 334, 354–55, 392, 536, 671.
28 Ibid., 671–72.
29 Ibid., 488–92.
30 On plans developed in 1958 for the resettlement of an additional two million Han migrants to Xinjiang, see Zhonggong Zhongyang Wenxian Yanjiushi and Zhonggong Xinjiang Weiwuer Zizhiqu Weiyuanhui, eds., Xinjiang gongzuo wenxian, 202–3, 206, 210.
31 Zhonggong Wulumuqi Shi Weiyuanhui Dangshi Gongzuo Weiyuanhui and Wulumuqi Shi Dang’an Ju, eds., Zhongguo gongchandang Wulumuqi shi weiyuanhui wenjian xuanbian, 670–71.
32 Zhonggong Yili Hasake Zizhizhou Weiyuanhui Dangshi Yanjiushi and Yili Hasake Zizhizhou Dang’an Ju (Guan), eds., Zhongguo gongchandang Yili Hasake zizhizhou weiyuanhui zhongyao wenjian xuanbian, 435–36.
33 Saifuding [Saypiddin Azizi], Jianjue fandui difang minzu zhuyi, wei shehuizhuyi de weida shengli er fendou!, 12, 26–28, 36, 38, 41.
6. THE XINJIANG GOVERNMENT IN EXILE
1 Waijiaobu, ed., Waijiaobu dang’an congshu, vol. 2, 25, 51, 27.
2 Ibid., 21–22, 24–25.
3 Ibid., 24, 28.
4 Ibid., 62–63, 76, 84, 90, 117–24.
5 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 110.11/0001, “Zhu Xie-mi lingguan chexiao,” 45.
6 Laird, Into Tibet, 81–90.
7 Zhang Dajun, Hengdu Kunlun san wan li, 44–45, 74–76, 86–87, 124.
8 “A Report on Conditions in Sinkiang Prepared by Mr. O.C. Ellis,” November 15, 1950, British National Archives, Far Eastern Department, FO 171/92207, Enclosure 2, 2.
9 Jacobs, “The Many Deaths of a Kazak Unaligned,” 1291–1314.
10 “Record of Interviews with General Yolbas Beg, former Governor of Hami in Sinkiang, at New Delhi,” April 3, 1951, British National Archives, Far Eastern Department, FO 171/92207.
11 “Letter from Husayin Tayji to Mr. J. Hall Paxton,” January 23, 1952, National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Office of Chinese Affairs, 350.4.
12 “Notes on the Kazak refugees in Kashmir” and “Letter from General Dalil Khan Haji to J. Hall Paxton, February 2, 1952,” National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Office of Chinese Affairs, 350.4.
13 “Record of Interviews with General Yolbas Beg,” FO 171/92207.
14 Ibid.
15 Zhongguo Di Er Lishi Dang’an Guan, ed., Zhonghua minguo shi dang’an ziliao huibian—di wu ji, di san bian: Zhengzhi (wu), 466.
16 K. L. Rankin to Walter P. McConaughy, November 5, 1953, National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Office of Chinese Affairs, 350.4.
17 Chu Chia-hua, Taiwan and Sinkiang (Formosa and Chinese Turkistan).
18 “Travels in Southern and Eastern Sinkiang,” September 20, 1948, National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Office of Chinese Affairs, Sinkiang file 893.00.
19 Ma Zhiyong, “Xinjiang junfa Sheng Shicai yuefu yijia bei sha zhi mi.”
20 Zhang Murong, “Li jiang hou de ‘Xinjiang wang’ Sheng Shicai.”
21 For a complete account of the afterlife of Sheng Shicai, see Jacobs, “Empire Besieged,” 380–84.
22 In the case of Fujian, this meant only a handful of offshore islands, while in the case of Yunnan, it was limited to jurisdiction claimed by defeated Nationalist general Li Mi in Burma.
23 Clark, “How the Kazakhs Fled to Freedom,” 621–44; Lias, “Kazakh Nomads’ Struggle against Communists”; and Lias, Kazakh Exodus.
24 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 109/0005, “Xinjiang nanmin yiju Tuerqi,” 108.
25 “Governor of Turkestan Has Escaped from Russia and arrived in Cairo,” November 4, 1953, British National Archives, Far Eastern Department, FO 371/106523.
26 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 109/0005, 113–18, 239–42.
27 Ibid., 227–35.
28 “Kazakh Refugees,” October 12, 1951, British National Archives, Far Eastern Department, FO 371/92897; and Letter from Orville L. Bennett to Dr. George A. Fitch, March 24, 1955, National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Office for Refugees, Migration, and Voluntary Assistance.
29 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 109/0005, 129–30.
30 Godfrey Lias conveyed their overtures to Winston Churchill in Kazak Exodus, 229.
31 Letter from Kali Beg and Hamza to J. Hall Paxton, March 13, 1952, National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Office of Chinese Affairs, #6p Sinkiang. I am indebted to Charles Kraus, whose prior research in these archives first alerted me to the existence of these documents.
32 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 109/0005, 175–80, 171, 110.
33 Ibid., 152.11/0048, “Xinjiang sheng zhengfu ji Zhongguo huijiao xiehui zhi guomin waijiao huodong,” 30; and 109/0005, 216–19, 229, 246–47, 256.
34 Ibid., 109/0005, 109, 120–121.
35 Ibid., 152.11/0048, 21–22; 109/0005, 226, 239–42; and Letter from Yolbars Khan to Mr. George Fitch, Far East Director of the Committee to Aid Refugee Chinese Intellectuals, July 1955, National Archives of the United States, Department of State, Office of Chinese Affairs, #6p Sinkiang.
36 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 105.22/0005, “Juyu feibang chaosheng tuanti qianzheng; zhu Sha dashiguan zhoubao,” 89–90, 95–96, 110, 119.
37 Ibid., 157–58.
38 Ibid., 158–59.
39 Ibid., 159–60.
40 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 109/005, 246–47, 251–53; 112.22/0003, “Tuerqi jizhe fang Tai; lü Tuerqi huaqiao fang Tai; lü Bajisitan huaqiao Shabulei; Aisha zhangzi Mulade fang Hua; Zhong Tu youhao xiehui,” 28–31; and 152.11/0048, 111–14.
41 Ibid., 152.11/0048, 186–93; and 119.5/0001, 228.
42 Taylor, The Generalissimo, 505–6.
43 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 152.11/0048, 124.
44 Ibid., 107/0001, “Tuerqi renwu zhi; Xinjiang ji Wahede shenqing zhengjian; Xinjiang ji Sudan shenqing zhengjian; Xinjiang ji Palati xueli shengqing zhengjian,” 61, 107–9.
45 Lianhe bao, March 9, 1962; January 30, 1963; June 25, 1963; and February 25, 1966.
46 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 112.22/0003, 34–35.
47 Ibid., 152.11/0045, “Huijiao renshi Sun Shengwu yu Xiao Yongtai,” 40–43, 46–48.
48 Ibid., 152.11/0045, 61–66.
49 Though it is now clear that cannibalism was a common strategy of survival in many regions of China during the Great Leap Forward, there are several reasons for considering this claim suspect with regard to Xinjiang. First, Xinjiang suffered perhaps the least of any region in China during the Great Leap Forward, to the point where it soon became a net exporter of grain to other regions in China. On this point, see Li Danhui, “Dui 1962 nian Xinjiang Yi-Ta shijian qiyin de lishi kaocha,” 486–514. Second, in those rural areas where starvation might have occurred in Xinjiang, the state maintained strict segregation between Uighur and Han communities, the latter tightly insulated within military colonies.
50 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 119.5/0001, “Zhiliu Afuhan Xinjiang nanmin,” 11–12.
51 Ibid., 14–20, 51–53, 96–100.
52 Ibid., 101–7, 150–53, 220, 225, 242–50. See also “Information: Refugees: From East Turkestan,” November 17, 1967, to October 17, 1968, British National Archives, Far Eastern Department, FO 95/15.
53 Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 119.5/0001, “Jiuji Xinjiang nanbao” and “Zhiliu Afuhan Xinjiang nanmin,” 47–48; and 119.5/0002, “Jiuji Xinjiang nanbao.”
54 For those activities Delilhan carried out on behalf of Yolbars, including correspondence between the two men, see Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 119.5/0002, 13–15, 156–59; 119.5/0001, “Zhiliu Afuhan Xinjiang nanmin,” 249; 119.5/0001, “Jiuji Xinjiang nanmin,” 104, 163–65; 112.22/0003, 40–41, 96–99; 109/0005, 137–39; and Lianhe bao, May 26, 1960.
55 Svanberg, Kazak Refugees in Turkey, 172–74.
56 Ibid.; Jacobs, “The Many Deaths of a Kazak Unaligned,” 1304–12; and author interviews, Istanbul, April and May 2008.
57 Lianhe bao, July 28, 1971; and Zhongyang Yanjiuyuan Jindaishi Yanjiusuo Dang’an Guan, 162.5/0001, 154–55.
58 Lianhe bao, May 20, 1988; May 31, 1991; and December 28, 1991.
59 Chen Ming-hsiang, “Zangbao zai Tai shenghuo zhuangkuang diaocha ji fudao cuoshi zhi yanjiu.”
60 Bachman, “Making Xinjiang Safe for the Han?” 182.
CONCLUSION
1 Roerich, Altai-Himalaya, 280; and Xu, Xu Xusheng xiyou riji, 198.
2 Gansu sheng guji wenxian zhengli bianyi zhongxin, ed., Zhongguo xibei wenxian congshu, er bian, vol. 10, 302, 158–59.
3 On “living shrines” in Chinese political culture, see Schneewind, “Beyond Flattery,” 345–66.
4 Prior to the twentieth century, the delineation of ethnic identities and institutionalization of ethnic hierarchies was nearly always undertaken by the non-Han conquerors of northern hybrid states such as the Northern Wei, Tang, Liao, Jin, Yuan, and Qing. For one of the earliest examples of ethnic engineering in Chinese history, see Elliott, “Hushuo.”
5 Wang Enmao, Wang Enmao wenji, vol. 1, 173.
6 Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation.
7 Esherick, Ancestral Leaves, 108; and personal communication with Esherick to confirm the usage of minzu diguo in the original Chinese source.
8 Cooper, Colonialism in Question.
9 See, for instance, Harrell, Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers; Gladney, Dislocating China; Rhoads, Manchus and Han; Litzinger, Other Chinas; Mackerras, China’s Ethnic Minorities and Globalisation; McCarthy, Communist Multiculturalism; and Mullaney, Critical Han Studies.