The Seventeenth Song: The Nayika who Questions

by Vishnupriya Goswami

Khaṇḍitā Nāyikā, ca. 1800–1820. Garhwal or Kangra, Punjab Hills, India. Brooklyn Museum, New York. Brooklyn Museum Collection Online (last accessed June 4, 2026).

Introduction

Yahi Mādhava, the seventeenth song from the Gīta-govinda is an Odia Aṣṭapadī repertoire and set within the thematic frame of Vilakṣya Lakṣmīpati. It presents a Khaṇḍitā Nāyikā—a heroine marked by jealousy, wounded pride, and emotional rupture within the landscape of vipralambha śṛṅgāra (lover’s separation). The text unfolds through the refrain “yāhi Mādhava yāhi Keśava mā vada kaitava-vādam,” wherein Rādhā rejects Kṛṣṇa’s conciliatory speech, articulating a complex emotional register of accusation, longing, and resistance. The nāyikā here is not passive; she is refusing, confrontational, and intellectually alert to the ambiguities of love, truth, and deceit. This analysis reads the composition as a layered poetic construction of separation (viraha) and will be further elucidated with a corresponding performance interpretation. The analysis is also supported by Kumbha’s commentary, Rasikapriyā (15th century).

To understand the emotional depth and experiential texture of the song, the analysis is supported by its choreographed performance in Odissi dance by Vishnupriya, a disciple of Guru Kunjalata Mishra and Guru Pratap Narayan Behra of Venunad Kalakendra, presented at the India International Centre, New Delhi (November 13, 2022). Choreographed by Guru Deba Prasad Das, the piece is not merely a solo interpretative enactment but an embodiment of a transmitted lineage. Vishnupriya is a third-generation performer of this stylistic tradition with her guru Kunjalata Mishra, herself a disciple of Guru Durga Charan Ranbir, a direct student of Deba Prasad Das, situating the performance within a stylistic and philosophical continuum.

The idea of Gīta-govinda in performance draws from the ritual and aesthetic world of the Jagannātha temple in Puri, particularly the late-evening devotional context of bāḍa śṛṅgāra bhoga and pahuda āratī, as described in ethnographic accounts such as Frederique Marglin’s Wives of the God-King. In this ritual ecology, Gīta-govinda recitation and dance by mahārīs (also known as devadāsī) historically functioned as offerings to Jagannātha, where performance itself becomes an enactment of divine līlā. The Devadāsī (wives of the Jagannātha deity) imagination, particularly in its Vaishnava reinterpretation, extends this ritual nightly sequence into a reenactment of līlā, where the Mahārīs identify themselves as gopīs participating in Kṛṣṇa’s eternal play. In this framework, eroticism is not understood as worldly kāma but as prema, a selfless, non-teleological effect.

The distinction between svakīya and parakīya love becomes central here: while svakīya implies possession and egoistic belonging (associated with royal consorts), parakīya dissolves ownership into transgressive devotion, where even separation becomes a form of union. The devadāsī aesthetic thus informs the choreographic ethos: the dancer does not merely depict Rādhā but enters the ontological space of gopī-bhāva, where subjectivity dissolves into devotional embodiment.

Lyrics, Transliteration, and Translation

Analysis

In dance, the performance begins with the singer reciting atha katham api yāminīṃ vinīya, while the flautist gently plays rāga Bhairavi. Each repetition of the first verse intensifies the viraha emotion in the atmosphere. Meanwhile, the dancer enters the stage with small, weak steps, hands hanging by her sides as if emotionally and physically drained, eyes fixated and unmoving in nimīlita dṛṣṭi (half-closed eyes). She is tired, sleep-deprived, and her entire body is injured by Kāma’s (Cupid) arrows. As the singer recites smara-śara-jarjaritāni sā prabhāte, she falls down—overwhelmed and emotionally shattered.

Then, during the second stanza, anunaya-vacanaṃ vadantam agre, the dancer acts as if Kṛṣṇa is standing in front of her. He speaks words of conciliation and even bows (agre praṇatam api) to her feet. This aligns with the commentary: the beloved is one who, while bowing and speaking appeasing words (sāmavākyaṃ vadantam), stands before her at dawn (prabhāte). She rises upon hearing the sound of his arrival (perhaps the sound of his ghunghroo or flute). With a smile, she turns her face in parivartitā grīvā (from left to right) to look at him, but once she sees the marks on his body, her eyes light up with jealousy and piercing anger. This is in line with the notion stated in the commentary that among proud women (māninīnāṃ), pride in the presence of the beloved increases into excessive pride (atimāna). She turns away in dhuta śira (head quickly moved from right to left) to show unwillingness to listen and forbidding him to come near her, and she stays in parāvṛtta śira (face is turned round) to display her anger. Simultaneously, she raises the patāka hasta, signals “no” and “go away”, yāhi mādhava yāhi keśava mā vada kaitava-vādam, she no longer wants to listen to his deceitful words.

As this is the refrain, it is repeated three times (but only yāhi mādhava yāhi keśava mā vada kaitava-vādam; tām anusara is not performed as part of the refrain in the performance). The dancer gets up and, with her mudrā, displays deceitful speech using kartarīmukha hasta (which is also generally used to show separation between a man and a woman). The performance is set up as if Kṛṣṇa follows Rādhā wherever she turns away. She repeatedly asks him to go, refusing to listen by covering her ears. The commentary frames him as dhūrta nāyaka—a deceitful lover.

Then Rādhā scoffs at him to go back to his lover, tām anusara sarasī-ruha-locana yā tava harati viṣādam. She shows the other woman with sūci hasta and the act to “follow” with single-handed kartarīmukha hasta, indicating a path; supported by her glance in sācī dṛṣṭi, used for hinting. With alapadma hasta, she shows the lotus (lake-born), and kartarīmukha for the corners of his eyes—this meaning becomes clearer in the next verse. The commentary also suggests that jealousy toward a co-wife (sapatnī-viṣaya īrṣyā) is being revealed here. The phrase harati viṣādam is illustrated through haṃsasya hasta, with both hands descending in a soft, fluid motion that conveys the dispelling of grief. Even as she tells Hari to go to the woman who can relieve his suffering, her own eyes welled up with tears, revealing the pain beneath her words.

Again, the refrain is recited. In this piece, the refrain is used as sañcāri. A sañcāri, in dance, is a musical interlude allowing the dancer to create subtext and scenarios based on the original text. In this sañcāri, she begs Kṛṣṇa to leave by sitting at his feet and raising her clasped hands in añjalī hasta above her head (begging him to leave). She lowers her head into adhomukha śira, conveying both her grief and her unwillingness to look at him. The dancer flinches and raises up her head udvāhita śira as Kṛṣṇa holds her hand; his touch softens Rādhā’s heart slightly, but she loosens his hold and turns away.

Then rajani-janita-guru-jāgara (second verse) is sung. In this verse the dancer gestures as if Rādhā is showing Kṛṣṇa how he looks by enacting his current state. She first shows the night with one hand in dola hasta, and the other in alapadma raised up in the air, indicating “born in the night”. She is looking up in udvāhita śira. Then the dancer shows his tired body by leaning, perhaps implying he spent the night with someone else. Red eyes are indicated with catura hasta, then used again to indicate the languid (alasa) body. The eyes are in avalokita dṛṣṭi, looking downwards, head also in adhomukha śira showing fatigue. With haṃsasya hasta, she shows tears (not explicitly stated in the verse but used to indicate the impression of the eyes after a passionate night). At the words "clearly revealing" (sphuṭa udita), she uses alapadma. The tear gestures could  explain sarasī-ruha-locana—his eyes now resemble lotus petals because they are watery and tired. With kaṭakamukha hasta, she indicates the corners of the eyes, which are strained from tiredness. She then shows closing eyes (of a sleep-deprived person), and a completely tired body with catura hasta and legs in tribhaṅgī (indicating Kṛṣṇa).

Again, with the refrain, she acts as if Rādhā is saying “no, Mādhava, I cannot hear more of your excuses,” again covering her ears. In this sañcāri, she shows the promise of returning by depicting a written letter with patāka (surface) and kaṭakāmukha (pen). She shows the letter to Kṛṣṇa, but he keeps making excuses. She becomes angry and throws away the letter.

Rādhā then turns to him and points out (with sūci hasta) the biting marks on his body. This corresponds directly with the commentary: “O Kṛṣṇa, this—marked by the enjoyment of another woman (anya-ramaṇa-upabhoga-cihnitaṃ)—is seen directly by me.” With shaking hands, she shows how hurt she feels, using catura to indicate her heart. Then she expresses: “Even now, how can you say your body is not different from mine?” She shows abheda (non-difference) with ardha-patāka, bringing both hands together, and bheda (“difference”) with kartarīmukha, signifying separation or difference. To indicate that this is a question, she uses alapadma with both hands. Her face shows confusion, patita bhru (astonishment mixed with anger and jealousy), shifting to kuñcita bhru (anger), as she is mad that he still makes excuses.

This reflects the philosophical argument in the commentary: if the bite mark (danta-kṣata) on his lip causes pain in her heart, then how can there be non-difference (abheda) when difference (bheda) is so clearly evident? “The pain belongs to the one who has the wound”—thus, logically, difference must exist, and the claim of non-difference becomes contradictory (sutarām viruddhaḥ).

She turns her face away. The music pace heightens. In this sañcāri, she removes all her jewellery—a feature of vipralambha sṛṅgāra, signifying that union cannot happen now, even as Kṛṣṇa pleads. She removes her māṅg-ṭīkā (head ornament), earrings, and waist belt. Just as she is about to take off her bangles, she looks at him one last time, turning her face in parāvṛtta śira and casting a sidelong glance with sācī dṛṣṭi; her eyes, filled with both love and hurt, suggest that she may yet change her mind. But she takes them off and throws all the jewellery toward Kṛṣṇa, then rushes to a corner crying.

Her hands are clasped together, fingers interlocked (like karakaṭa hasta), as she cries. While the singer recites śrī-jayadeva-bhaṇita-rati-vañcita-khaṇḍita-yuvati-vilāpam śṛṇuta sudhā-madhuram, she wipes her tears with catura hasta. As he recites vibudhā vibudhālayato’pi durāpam, she slowly turns her face in ukṣpta śira to see why Kṛṣṇa is no longer speaking. Her eyes widen as she realizes he has left. She rushes to the door as the singer repeats khaṇḍita-yuvati-vilāpam —her hands reach out, with each repetition the music heightens, but then she retreats. She is now truly khaṇḍita—shattered, confused, and exhausted. She falls, then slowly raises her head with pain in her heart. The light fades.

The main feature of this performance is how the nāyikā, Rādhā, is perceived by the choreographer and dancer. She is not shown as a passive victim—although hurt, she questions, scolds, and refuses to listen to her lover’s lies. At the end, she asks, “Even now, how can you say that your body is not different from mine?”—which also resonates with the deeper philosophy that Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa are one, engaging the tension between dvaita (duality) and advaita (non-duality), even within the lived emotional reality of separation.

Glossary 

Hand gestures (Hasta Mudrās):

Patāka hasta – All fingers are held straight and together with the thumb bent slightly inward.

Ardha-patāka hasta – The little finger is bent while the remaining fingers stay extended together as in patāka.

Kartarīmukha hasta – The index and middle fingers are separated, the ring and little fingers are bent, and the thumb supports them.

Sūci hasta – The index finger is extended upward while the thumb touches the bent middle finger; the remaining fingers are folded.

Alapadma hasta – All fingers are fully spread and slightly curved outward, resembling a fully blossomed lotus.

Catura hasta – The thumb, index, and middle fingers are slightly bent toward one another, while the ring and little fingers remain extended.

Haṃsasya hasta – The tips of the thumb and index finger touch each other, while the other three fingers are gracefully extended.

Kaṭakamukha (Kaṭakāmukha) hasta – The thumb, index, and middle fingers are brought together at their tips, with the ring and little fingers extended.

Dola hasta – The hand is held in patāka and allowed to hang naturally by the side of the body.

Añjalī hasta – Both hands in patāka are joined evenly with palms and fingers touching in a gesture of salutation.

Karakaṭa hasta – Both hands are brought together with the fingers interlocked or clasped.

Head Movements (Śiro-bheda):

Adhomukha śira – The face is cast down.

Dhuta śira – The head is moved quickly from side to side (right and left and vice versa).

Parāvṛtta śira – The face and head are turned away to one side, looking behind.

Eye Movements/Glances (Dṛṣṭi-bheda):

Nimīlita dṛṣṭi – The eyelids are half-closed.

Avalokita dṛṣṭi – The eyes are cast downward.

Sācī dṛṣṭi – sidealong glance, looking out of the corner of eyes .

Neck Movements (Grīvā-bheda):

Parivartitā grīvā – The neck turns gracefully from one side to the other in a circular or sweeping motion.

Eyebrow Movements (Bhrū-bheda):

Patita bhrū – The eyebrows are lowered or droop downward.

Kuñcita bhrū – The eyebrows are contracted and drawn inward, producing a frown.

Wordlist 

V 1

यामिनी Yāminī a f. (fr. 1. yāma) ‘consisting of watches’, night

विनीय vinīya vi-√nī P. Ā. -nayati, °te, to lead or take away, remove, avert

स्मर smara m. memory, remembrance, recollection; smara m. loving recollection, love, (esp.) sexual love; Kāma-deva (god of love)

शरः śaraḥ [शॄ-अच्] 1 An arrow, a shaft; -2 A kind of white reed or grass (Mar. देवनळ, बोरू);-3 The cream of slightly curdled milk, cream; -4 Hurt, injury, wound. -5 The number 'five'; cf. शराग्नि q. v. -6 (In astr.) The versed sine of an arc. -7 Kuśa grass;

जर्जरित jarjarita a. [जर्ज्-णिच् कर्मणि क्त] 1 Old, decayed, infirm. -2 Worn out, torn to pieces, shattered, splintered &c. -3 Completely overpowered, disabled

प्रभात prabhāta p. p. Begun to become clear or light; -तम् Day-break, dawn;

अनुनय anunaya a. [नी-अच्] Kind, conciliatory, pacifying (as words).1 Conciliation, propitiation, pacification (of anger), friendly 

अग्रे agre adv. 1 In front of, before (in time or space); -2 In the presence of, before; -3 At the head, ahead; -4 Further on, subsequently, in the sequel; -5 In the beginning; at first, first; -6 First, in preference to others

प्रणत praṇata p. p. 1 Bending, inclined, stooping. -2 Bowing to, saluting; -3 Humble. -4 Skilful, clever. -5 Crooked.

अभ्यसूय abhyasūya a. Angry, jealous. अभ्यसूयति abhyasūyati Den. P. 1 To be angry with, bear malice against, envy, be jealous of (with acc.); 1 To envy, to be jealous of. -2 To detract from; murmur, grumble at, be displeased with, scorn, be discontented with or angry with (with dat. of person or thing)

आह āha ind. 1 An interjection showing (a reproof; (b) severity; (c) command; (d) casting, sending. -2 An irregular verbal form of the 3rd. pers. sing. Pres. of a defective verb meaning 'to say', or 'to speak' (supposed by Indian grammarians to be derived from ब्रू and by European scholars from अह्र; the only forms of the root existing in the language are:- आत्थ, आहथुः, आह, आहतुः, and आहुः).

V 2

रजनिः rajanim, रजनी rajanī f. 1 Night; P. -2 Turmeric. -3 Red lac; -4 N. of Durgā.

जनित janita a. [जन्-णिच्-क्त] 1 Given birth to. -2 Produced, created. -3 Occasioned, occurred, happened &c.

गुरु guru a. (-रु, -र्वी f.) 1 Heavy, weighty (opp. लघु); (fig. also); -2 Great, large, long, extended. -3 Long (in duration or length). -4 Important, momentous, great; -5 Arduous, difficult (to bear); -6 Great, excessive, violent, intense; -7 Venerable, respectable. -8 Heavy, hard of digestion (as food). -9 Best, excellent. -10 Dear, beloved. -11 Haughty, proud (as a speech). -12(In prosody) Long, as a syllable, either in itself, or being short, followed by a conjunct consonant &c.; -13 Irresistible, unassailable; -14 Mighty; powerful. -15 Valuable, highly prized; -16 Grievous;

जागर jāgara a. Awake, watchful. -रः 1 Wakefulness, waking, keeping awake; -2 A vision in a waking state. -3 An armour, mail.

रागः rāgaḥ [रञ्ज्-भावे घञ् नि˚ नलोपकुत्वे] 1 (a) Colouring, dyeing, tinging. (b) Colour, hue, dye; -2 Red colour, redness; -3 Red dye, red lac; -4 Love, passion, affection, amorous or sexual feeling; -5 Feeling, emotion, sympathy, interest. -6 Joy, pleasure. -7 Anger, wrath; -8 Loveliness, beauty. -9 A musical mode or order of sound; -10 Musical harmony, melody; -11 Regret, sorrow. -12 Greediness, envy; -13 The quality called Rajas q. v. -14 Nasalization. -15 A process in the preparation of quicksilver. -16 A king, prince. -17 The sun. -18 The moon. -19 Inflammation. -20 Seasoning, condiment

कषाय kaṣāya a. 1 Astringent -2 Fragrant, -3 Red, dark-red; -4 (Hence) Sweet-sounding

अलस alasa a. 1 Inactive, without energy, lazy, idle, indolent. -2 Tired, fatigued, languid;

निवेशः niveśaḥ 1 Entering, entrance. -2 Encamping, halting. -3 (a) A halting place, camp, encampment; -4 A house, an abode, a dwelling;. -5 Expanse, contour (of the breast); -6 Depositing, delivering, -7 Marrying, marriage, settling in life;-8 Impression, copy. -9 Military array. -10 Ornament, decoration. -11Founding (a town), -12 Settling in a place

अभिनिवेशः abhiniveśaḥ 1 (a) Devotion, attachment, intentness, being occupied with, adherence to close application, with loc. or in comp, (b) Firm attachment, love, fondness, affection; 2 Earnest desire, ardent longing or expectation; wish, desire; -3 Resolution, determined resolve, determination of purpose, firmness of resolve, (b) Idea, thought; -4 (In Yoga Phil.) A sort of ignorance causing fear of death; instinctive clinging to worldly life and bodily enjoyments and the fear that one might be cut off from all of them by death; -5 Pride

वह् vah 1 U. (वहति-ते, उवाह, ऊहे, अवाक्षीत्, अवोढ, वक्ष्यति-ते, वोढुम्, ऊढ; pass. उह्यते) 1 To carry, lead, bear, convey, transport (oft. with two acc.); -2 To bear along, cause to move onward, waft, propel; -3 To fetch, bring; -4 To bear, support, hold up, sustain; -5 To carry off; take away;-6 To marry; -7 To have, possess, bear; -8 To assume, exhibit, show; -9 To look to, attend to, take care of; -10 To suffer, feel, experience; -11 To be borne or carried on, move or walk on; -12 To flow (as rivers); -13 To blow (as wind); मन्दं वहति मारुतः Rām.; वहति मलयसमीरे मदनमुपनिधाय Gīt.5. -15 To breathe.

अनुराग anurāga a. Become red, reddened. -गः 1 Redness. -2 Devotion, attachment, contentment, loyalty (opp. अपरागः); love, affection, passion (with loc. or in comp.);

स्फुट sphuṭa a. [स्फुट्-क] 1 Burst, rent asunder, broken, split. -2 Opened, expanded, full-blown; -3 Manifested, displayed, made clear. -4 Clear, plain, distinctly visible or manifest; -5 Bursting into view; -6 White, bright, pure; -7 Well-known, famous; -8 Spread, diffused. -9 Loud. -10 Apparent, true. -11 Corrected. -12 Extraordinary, strange. -टा, -टः The expanded hood of a snake. -टम् ind. Clearly, evidently, distinctly, certainly, manifestly.

Refrain 

हरि hari ind. an exclamation (‘alas!’)

या yā 2 P. 1 To go, move, walk, proceed; -2 To march against, invade; -3 To go to, march towards, set out for (with acc., dat. or with प्रति). -4 To pass away, withdraw, depart; -5 To vanish, disappear; -6 To pass away or by, elapse (as time); -7 To last. -8 To happen, come to pass. -9 To go or be reduced to any state, be or become (usually with the acc. of abstract noun). -10 To undertake; -11 To have carnal intercourse with. -12 To request, implore. -13 To find out, discover. -14 To behave, act.

माधव mādhava a. (-वी f.) [मधु-अण्] 1 Honey-like, sweet. -2 Made of honey. -3 Vernal, relating to the spring; -4 Relating to the descendants of Madhu. -वः 1 N. of Kṛiṣṇa;

कैतवम् kaitavam 1 Stake in a game; -2 Gambling. -3 Falsehood, deceit, fraud, roguery, trick; -4 The lapis lazuli (वैडूर्य)

अनुसरः anusaraḥ A follower, companion, attendant.

सरसी sarasī A lake, pool; -Comp. -जम्, -रुहम् a lotus.

मा mā ind. A particle of prohibition (rarely of negation) usually joined with the Imperative

हर hara a. (-रा, -री f.) [हृ-अच्] 1 Taking away, removing, depriving one of; -2 Bringing, conveying, carrying, taking; -3 Seizing, grasping. -4 Attracting, captivating. -5 Claiming, entitled to; -6 Occupying; -7Dividing..

V 6

पद Pada n. (rarely m.) a step, pace, stride; a footstep, trace, vestige, mark

अधर adhara a. [न ध्रियते; धृ-अच्, न. त.] 1 Lower (opp. उत्तर), (lit. not held up); tending downwards; under, nether, downwards; lower or nether lip: -2 Low, mean, vile; lower in quality, inferior. -3 Silenced, worsted, not able to speak; See हीन, हीनवादिन्. -4 Previous, preceding as in

चेतस् cetas n. 1 Consciousness, sense. -2 Thinking soul; -3 The mind, heart, soul; -4 Will.

कथ् kath 10 U. (कथयति-ते, कथित) 1 To tell, relate, narrate, communicate (usually with dat. of person); -2 To declare, state, mention; -3 To converse, talk with, hold conversation with; -4 To indicate, betray, bespeak, show; -5 To describe, relate; -6 To inform, give information about, complain against; -7 to denounce. -8 To suppose. -9 To praise, narrate devotedly

अधुना adhunā ind. Now, at this time

वपुः vapuḥ The body.

V 9

वञ्चित vañcita p. p. 1 Deceived, cheated. -2 Deprived of.

खण्डित khaṇḍita p. p. [खण्ड्-क्त] 1 Cut, broken in pieces. -2 Destroyed, annihilated, lost, decayed; -3 Refuted (in argument), controverted. -4 Rebelled. -5 Disappointed, betrayed, abandoned

विबुधः vibudhaḥ 1 A wise or learned man, sage. -2 A god, deity. -3 The moon

आलय Ā-laya  1 An abode, a house, a dwelling; -2 A village; -3 A receptacle, seat, place;

दुर्-आप dur—ā́pa mfn. difficult to be attained or approached, inaccessible

Discussion Question

Based on both the choreography and the text, what do you think it means for Rādhā to be khaṇḍitā? Is she simply heartbroken, or is there something more complex happening emotionally and philosophically?

Sources/Further Reading

Frédérique Apffel-Marglin. 1985. Wives of the God-King: The Rituals of the Devadasis of Puri. , New Delhi, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chatterjee, Gautam. 2022. Abhinayadarpaṇam (Sanskrit Text with English Translation), trans. by Ghosh, Manmohan. New Delhi: Indian Mind.

Miller, Barbara Stoler. 1977. Love Song of the Dark Lord: Jayadeva’s Gītagovinda. New York: Columbia University Press.

Siegel, Lee. 1978. Sacred and profane dimensions of love in Indian traditions, as exemplified in the Gītagovinda of Jayadeva. Oxford University Press.