NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1David Munsell, interview with author, June 6, 2017.
2Continued Archeological Testing at the Duwamish No. 1 Site (Summary of Report), Office of Public Archaeology, University of Washington, March 1977; Eric Lacitis, “Artifacts Lost, Says Archeologist,” Seattle Times, July 14, 1976.
3Lacitis, “Artifacts Lost.”
4Continued Archeological Testing.
5Continued Archeological Testing.
6Munsell interview.
7Munsell interview.
8Sarah Campbell, interview with author, June 29, 2017. Efforts to develop the site continued until at least 1986, according to Campbell.
9Coll Thrush, Native Seattle: Histories from the Crossing Over Place (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2007), 194–95, 205.
10David M. Buerge, Chief Seattle and the Town that Took His Name: The Change of Worlds for the Native People and Settlers on Puget Sound (Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 2017), 99.
CHAPTER 5: RIVER REVIVAL
1Environmental Protection Agency, “National Priorities List for Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites,” Federal Register 66, no. 178 (September 13, 2001): 47583–92, www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2001–09–13/pdf/01–22741.pdf.
2Donald C. Malins, “What’s Happening to Our Fish?” NOAA Magazine, March–April 1980, www.eopugetsound.org/sites/default/files/features/resources/malins_noaa-magazine_mar-apr-1980_opt.pdf.
3“EPA Bans PCB Manufacture; Phases Out Uses,” EPA news release, April 19, 1979, https://archive.epa.gov/epa/aboutepa/epa-bans-pcb-manufacture-phases-out-uses.html.
4Roy F. Weston, Inc., Site Inspection Report: Lower Duwamish River (RM 2.5 to 11.5), Seattle, Washington, by (Seattle: United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, 1999); Hal Bernton, “Group to Examine Duwamish Cleanup: Local Officials Hoping to Avoid Superfund List by Developing Own Plan,” Seattle Times, April 20, 2000.
5Hal Bernton, “Superfund Label Likely for River,” Seattle Times, November 12, 2000.
6Bernton, “Superfund Label Likely for River.”
7James P. Meador, Gina M. Ylitalo, Frank C. Sommers, and Daryle T. Boyd, “Bioaccumulation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Juvenile Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) Outmigrating through a Contaminated Urban Estuary: Dynamics and Application,” Ecotoxicology 19, no. 1 (January 14, 2009): 141–52, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19685184.
8Meador et al., “Bioaccumulation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls.”
9James Meador, interview with author, January 8, 2019; Winward Environmental, Lower Duwamish Waterway Remedial Investigation: Task 5; Identification of Candidate Sites for Early Action (report submitted to United States Environmental Protection Agency and Washington State Department of Ecology), Seattle, June 12, 2003.
10James P. Meador, “Do Chemically Contaminated River Estuaries in Puget Sound (Washington, USA) Affect the Survival Rate of Hatchery-reared Chinook Salmon?” Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 71, no. 1 (2014): 162–80, www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/10.1139/cjfas-2013–0130#.XLYzwxNKjok.
11Meador interview.
12Mega-sites are especially large and complex cleanup areas that generally cost more than $50 million to clean up, in contrast to the majority of sites, which are confined to a small area and caused by a single outfall or source. As of 2005, fewer than 10 percent of the nation’s Superfund sites were considered mega-sites. Elizabeth Southerland, “EPA Megasites,” presentation at Superfund Basic Research Program Annual Meeting, San Diego, CA, January 12, 2006.
13King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks, Anchor Environmental, and EcoChem, Elliott Bay/Duwamish Restoration Program, Duwamish/Diagonal Cleanup Study Report (Final), NOAA Damage Assessment and Restoration Center Northwest, Seattle, October 2005.
14King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks, Duwamish/Diagonal Sediment Remediation, Dredging and Capping Operations: Sediment Monitoring, Sampling and Analysis Plan, Seattle, October 28, 2003.
15EcoChem and Anchor Environmental, Duwamish/Diagonal CSO/SD Sediment Remediation Project: Closure Report, Elliott Bay/Duwamish Restoration Panel, Seattle, July 2005.
16Lisa Stiffler, “Duwamish Cleanup Spreads Pollutants: Large Volume of PCBs Was Taken from River, but Some Scattered,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, June 10, 2004.
17Tom Paulson, “Tainted Sludge Won’t Go to Tacoma: Duwamish River Sediment Will Be Sent to Klickitat County,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, September 11, 2003.
18Lisa Stiffler, “Short-Term Fix for Duwamish Hot Spot: State Orders Action after Cleanup Project Exposed Pollutants,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, November 22, 2004.
19Dan Cargill, interview with author, June 9, 2017.
20SAIC, Property Review: Terminal 117/Former Malarkey Asphalt Company, Washington State Department of Ecology, Seattle, June 18, 2004.
21United States Environmental Protection Agency and Washington State Department of Ecology, Lower Duwamish Waterway Site: Seattle, Washington, June 2003, http://duwamishcleanup.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Duwamish_fs_20030627.pdf.
22Winward Environmental, Lower Duwamish Superfund Site: Terminal 117 Early Action Area; Terminal 117 Engineering Evaluation/Cost Analysis (Draft), United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Seattle, March 4, 2005.
23BJ Cummings, Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition/Technical Advisory Group (TAG), to Ravi Sanga, United States Environmental Protection Agency, April 7, 2005, http://duwamishcleanup.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/DRCCT117EECAcomments.pdf.
24Washington Administrative Code, title 173, chapter 340, section 170: Unrestricted Land Use Soil Cleanup Standards, Washington State Legislature,https://app.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=173–340–740; Washington Administrative Code, title 173, chapter 340, section 175: Soil Cleanup Standards for Industrial Properties, Washington State Legislature, https://app.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=173–340–745.
25Winward Environmental, T-117 Upland Area Soil Investigation: Field Sampling and Data Report, Port of Seattle, WA, July 7, 2006.
26Robert McClure, “Tests Find High Pollution at Old Plant,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, March 20, 2006.
27Craig Welch, “High levels of PCBs Uncovered near River,” Seattle Times, November 9, 2004.
28Washington State Department of Health, Health Consultation: Malarkey Asphalt, Seattle, King County, Washington, May 2001, www.doh.wa.gov/Portals/1/Documents/Pubs/334–239.pdf.
29Retec, T-117 Upland: Draft Removal Action Plan, Port of Seattle, May 15, 2006. Residents of homes where PCBs were detected inside were advised to vacuum with a fine HEPA filter, but no other cleanup action was taken.
30BJ Cummings, Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition, to Ravi Sanga, United States Environmental Protection Agency, April 25, 2006, in author’s possession.
31Richard Colin (chair), Sally Clark, David Della, Jan Drago, Jean Godden, Nick Licata, Richard McIvar, Tom Rasmussen, and Peter Steinbrueck, Seattle City Council, to Ravi Sanga, United States Environmental Protection Agency, May 25, 2006, in author’s possession.
32Seattle City Council to Sanga, May 25, 2006.
33Neil Modie, “Port Opts to Exceed EPA’s South Park Cleanup Plan,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, June 28, 2006.
34Modie, “Port Opts to Exceed EPA’s South Park Cleanup Plan.” At most Superfund sites, EPA oversees cleanup studies and plans but does not develop them; the plans are crafted by the responsible parties themselves and submitted to EPA for review and approval.
35Dan Cargill, personal communication, February 12, 2019.
36United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Lower Duwamish Waterway Superfund Site—Terminal 117 Early Action Area: Revised Engineering Evaluation/Cost Analysis, Terminal 117 Cleanup, June 3, 2010, www.t117.com/documents/eeca/Final%20Revised%20EECA.pdf; Ralph Graves, managing director, to Tay Yoshitani, chief executive officer, Port of Seattle, “Declaration of Emergency,” August 27, 2013, www.t117.com/documents/T117_Declaration_of_Emergency.pdf
37Integral, Lower Duwamish Waterway: Slip 4 Early Action Area; Removal Action Completion Report, United States Environmental Protection Agency, July 26, 2012, https://semspub.epa.gov/work/10/100101255.pdf, accessed April 17, 2019.
38Integral, Lower Duwamish Waterway: Slip 4 Early Action Area.
39“Poisoned Waters,” Frontline, produced by Hedrick Smith, April 21, 2009, www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/poisonedwaters; “Boeing Company, EPA Sign PCB Cleanup Agreement,” Tox-Ick.org, October 9, 2010, http://tox-ick.org/2010/10/boeing-company-epa-sign-pcb-cleanup-agreement.
40Winward Environmental, Lower Duwamish Waterway Remedial Investigation: Task 5.
41Wally Barron, interview with author, July 29, 2018.
42“Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Overview,” Environmental Protection Agency, February 6, 2019, www.epa.gov/rcra/resource-conservation-and-recovery-act-rcra-overview; Shawn Blocker, interview with author, February 15, 2019. EPA’s manager during the plant cleanup said that decision might have been the biggest mistake Boeing ever made, describing RCRA cleanups as generally more restrictive and costly than cleanups under the Superfund law.
43“Poisoned Waters.”
44Blocker interview.
45Blocker interview.
46Blocker interview.
47Cari Simson, Maggie Milcarek, and Dan Klempner, Duwamish Valley Vision Map and Report, ed. BJ Cummings (Seattle, WA: Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition/TAG, 2009).
48Simson, Milcarek, and Klempner, Duwamish Valley Vision Map and Report.
49Simson, Milcarek, and Klempner, Duwamish Valley Vision Map and Report, 39.
50Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition/TAG, Duwamish Valley Healthy Communities Project: Fact Sheet 2, March 2013, Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition, http://duwa mishcleanup.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/FactSheet2.pdf.
51Bellamy Pailthorp, “Report: More Illness, Shorter Lifespans in Duwamish River Valley,” KPLU radio (now KNKX), March 27, 2013, www.knkx.org/post/report-more-illness-shorter-lifespans-duwamish-river-valley.
52Linn Gould and BJ Cummings, Duwamish Valley Cumulative Health Impacts Analysis: Seattle, Washington (Seattle: University of Washington School of Public Health, Just Health Action, and Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition/TAG, March 2013).
53Rose Egge, “Study: Duwamish Residents Have Short Life Expectancy,” KOMO News, March 27, 2013, https://komonews.com/news/local/study-duwamish-residents-have-short-life-expectancy.
54Olivia Henry, “With Focus on Toxics, Duwamish Cleanup Could Leave Other Health Problems Unsolved,” InvestigateWest, May 15, 2013, www.invw.org/2013/05/15/duwamish-health-impact-as-1355.
55King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks, Wastewater Treatment Division, Lower Duwamish Waterway Cleanup Plan Equity Impact Review, August 2013, www.kingcounty.gov/services/environment/wastewater/duwamish-water way/~/media/FA6EDFF1E8D44AC59136D64278797333.ashx?la=en.
56Public Health Seattle-King County comments on King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks Equity Impact Review, July 10, 2013, in author’s possession.
57John Ryan, testimony on Lower Duwamish Waterway Site, May 23, 2013 (in Spanish, with translation), United States Environmental Protection Agency Region 10 Public Records, Seattle; Lower Duwamish Waterway Group, Comparison of Duwamish Clean-Up Alternatives, original version (Seattle, 2013), in author’s possession.
58Robert McClure, “How Government and Boeing Fought to Curtail Duwamish River Cleanup,” InvestigateWest, November 19, 2014, www.invw.org/2014/11/19/the-last-days-of-the-old-1484.
59William Daniell, Linn Gould, BJ Cummings, Jonathan Childers, and Amber Lenhart, Health Impact Assessment: Proposed Cleanup Plan for the Lower Duwamish Waterway Superfund Site, final report (Seattle: University of Washington, Just Health Action, and Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition/TAG, September 2013), 25–29; Amber Lenhart, interview with author, February 19, 2019.
60Linn Gould, BJ Cummings, William Daniell, Amber Lenhart, and Jonathan Childers, Health Impact Assessment: Proposed Cleanup Plan for the Lower Duwamish Waterway Superfund Site—Technical Report: Effects of the Proposed Cleanup Plan on Tribes (Seattle: University of Washington, Just Health Action, and Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition/TAG, September 2013); Daniell et al., Health Impact Assessment, 21–24.
61Daniell et al., Health Impact Assessment, 12–24.
62Daniell et al., Health Impact Assessment, 34–37.
63Daniell et al., Health Impact Assessment, 34–37; EcoNorthwest, Lower Duwamish Economic Analysis, King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks, Wastewater Treatment Division, Seattle, March 2010.
64Jonathan Hall, interview with author, October 29, 2018.
65Hall interview; EcoNorthwest, Lower Duwamish Economic Analysis.
66Daniell et al., Health Impact Assessment.
67Exec. Order No. 12898, 3 C.F.R. (1994).
68United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Justice, Plan EJ 2014 (September 2011). United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Environmental Justice Analysis for the Lower Duwamish Waterway Cleanup: Appendix B; Proposed Plan for the Lower Duwamish Waterway Superfund Site, Seattle, February 2013; Alexandra Gilliland, “A Review of EPA’s First Environmental Justice Analysis in Conjunction with a CERCLA Remediation Plan,” March 2014, Foster Pepper, PLLC, Attorneys at Law, www.foster.com/documents/a-review-of-epa-first-environmental-justice-analys.pdf.
69United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Environmental Justice Analysis; Washington State Department of Health, Lower Duwamish Waterway Superfund Site, Fact Sheet, October 2008, www.doh.wa.gov/Portals/1/Documents/Pubs/334–139.pdf.
70United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Environmental Justice Analysis.
71United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Environmental Justice Analysis.
72Gilliland, “A Review of EPA’s First Environmental Justice Analysis.”
73United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Environmental Justice Analysis; James Rasmussen, closing remarks, 2016 Green-Duwamish Watershed Symposium, February 29, 2016, https://vimeo.com/159571959.
74United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Environmental Justice Analysis.
75Clifford Villa, personal communication, February 28, 2019.
76The approved cleanup plan for a Superfund site is called the record of decision. Once it has been issued, EPA typically enters into legal agreements with the responsible parties, who then carry out the required studies and cleanup activities.
77Ken Workman, personal communication, February 19, 2019.
78Ken Workman, testimony at EPA public meeting on proposed cleanup plan for Duwamish River Superfund site, April 30, 2013, United States Environmental Protection Agency Region 10 Public Records, Seattle.
79“The Duwamish Is My River,” River for All, www.riverforall.org, accessed March 21, 2019.
80United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Record of Decision: Lower Duwamish Waterway Superfund Site, Seattle, WA, November 2014, Part 3 Responsiveness Summary, 4, https://semspub.epa.gov/work/10/715975.pdf.
81Matthew Liebman, OSV Bold Survey Report: Puget Sound Sediment PCB and Dioxin 2008 Survey, United States Environmental Protection Agency, September 11, 2008.
82Simson, Milcarek, and Klempner, Duwamish Valley Vision Map and Report.
83AECOM, Executive Summary: Final Feasibility Study; Lower Duwamish Waterway, Seattle, Washington, Lower Duwamish Waterway Group, October 31, 2012, 28, 38.
84AECOM, Executive Summary: Final Feasibility Study, 28, 38; James Rasmussen, BJ Cummings, and Lee Dorrigan, Duwamish River Cleanup Coalition/TAG, to Allison Hiltner, United States Environmental Protection Agency, January 14, 2011, EPA Region 10 Public Records, Seattle, WA.
85Dan Cargill, personal communication, February 12, 2019.
86Lideos, Green-Duwamish River Watershed: Compendium of Existing Environmental Information, Washington State Department of Ecology, Toxics Cleanup Program, October 2014, 33–35.
87Lideos, Green-Duwamish River Watershed, 35–40; Dan Cargill, personal communication, February 12, 2019.
88King County representative, Health Impact Assessment Liaison Committee meeting, McInstry Innovation Center, March 11, 2013.
89“Poisoned Waters.”
90United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Record of Decision: Lower Duwamish Waterway Superfund Site, Seattle, November 2014, https://semspub.epa.gov/work/10/715975.pdf; Northwest Regional Office and Lideos, Lower Duwamish Waterway Source Control Strategy, Washington Department of Ecology, Toxics Cleanup Program, Pub. No. 16-09-339, June 2016.
91Sarah Kavage and Nicole Kistler, interview with author, March 20, 2019.
92Jim Demetre, “A River Revived: Forty Artists from around the World Celebrate the History and Future of the Duwamish,” CityArts, June 23, 2015, www.cityartsmagazine.com/river-revived.
93Demetre, “A River Revived”; Duwamish Revealed opening ceremony, video recording, June 5, 2015, https://vimeo.com/161254322.
94Demetre, “A River Revived.”
95Sophorn Sim, interview with author, March 29, 2019; Russell Ross, Cambodia: A Country Study (Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1990), www.loc.gov/item/89600150.
96Sam Le, “Celebrating the Cultural Importance of Water,” Northwest Asian Weekly, August 3, 2018, http://nwasianweekly.com/2018/08/celebrating-the-cultural-importance-of-water.
97Sim interview.
98Sim interview.
99Isa Kaufman-Geballe, “Translating Sustainability,” Planet Magazine, December 12, 2017, https://theplanetmagazine.net/translating-sustainability-49302a9bf3b3.
100Sophorn Sim, address at “Rivers: An International Storytelling Event,” Sullivan Community Center, Tukwila, WA, March 31, 2019.
101Sally Macdonald, “Belulah Maple Norman, 98, Artist, Granddaughter of Pioneer Family,” Seattle Times, January 11, 1992; Louise Ann Jones, interview with author, May 24, 2018.
102Patrick McRoberts, “Hugo, Richard (1923–1982),” HistoryLink, January 20, 2003, www.historylink.org/File/5082; Richard Hugo, A Run of Jacks (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1961).
103Gene Gentry McMahon, interview with author, March 29, 2019; River for All, www.riverforall.org, accessed March 26, 2019; Duwamish River Artist Residency, www.duwamishresidency.com, accessed March 25, 2009.
104Clair Gebbin, “Ancient Traditions Shared in Duwamish Cultural Longhouse,” Mercer Island Reporter, October 1, 2009, www.mi-reporter.com/news/ancient-traditions-shared-in-duwamish-cultural-longhouse; Steve Griggs, Listen to Seattle, http://listentoseattle.blogspot.com, accessed March 26, 2019.
105Paulina Lopez, interview with author, March 15, 2019.
106Lopez interview.
107Carmen Martinez, interview with author, May 4, 2018.
108Roger Fernandes, interview with author, March 30, 2019; Daniella Cortez, interview with author, March 30, 2019.
109Joel Connelly, “A New South Park Bridge: The Neighborhood Made It Happen,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, June 29, 2019; Ken Workman, personal communication, March 30, 2019.
110Fernandes interview.
111Ryan Calkins, address given at Duwamish Valley Youth Corps Mural Unveiling, Duwamish Waterway Park, Seattle, WA, March 30, 2019.
112Roger Fernandes, address given at Duwamish Valley Youth Corps Mural Unveiling, Duwamish Waterway Park, Seattle, March 30, 2019.
113“Lower Duwamish Waterway,” Superfund Site, United States Environmental Protection Agency, October 20, 2017, https://cumulis.epa.gov/supercpad/SiteProfiles/index.cfm?fuseaction=second.Cleanup&id=1002020; Alison Morrow, “Seattle Recycling Company Settles Lawsuit over Duwamish River Pollution,” King5 News, January 18, 2019, www.king5.com/article/tech/science/environment/seattle-recycling-company-settles-lawsuit-over-duwamish-river-pollution/281–424a3e90–8982–40c8–8c13–070ab42a7a16; United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Fishing in the Duwamish River, Seattle, WA, February 2017, https://semspub.epa.gov/work/10/100046881.pdf.
114City of Seattle, Duwamish Valley Program, Duwamish Valley Action Plan: Advancing Environmental Justice and Equitable Development in Seattle, Seattle, June 2018.
115Gilliland, “A Review of EPA’s First Environmental Justice Analysis”; James Rasmussen, interviews with author, 2015–19.
116Rasmussen, closing remarks at 2016 Green-Duwamish Watershed Symposium.
117United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 10, Environmental Justice Analysis; “About the Roundtable,” Lower Duwamish Waterway Roundtable, n.d., www.duwamishwaterwayroundtable.org/about-the-roundtable, accessed April 18, 2019.
118Jonathan Hall to Julie Congdon, United States Environmental Protection Agency, and Sophie Glass, Triangle Associates, January 10, 2018; Jonathan Hall, personal communication, February 28, 2019.
119Alberto Rodriguez, personal communication, February 28, 2019.
120James Rasmussen, personal communication, February 28, 2019.