INDEX

Page numbers in italic refer to illustrations.

activism, 5, 8, 111–17, 142, 151, 154, 169; ecological, 17, 95, 109; Indigenous, 17, 95
agriculture, 55, 61, 67, 105, 106, 110; war zones and, 100. See also cultivation
agroforestry, 39, 105
Allen, Tim, 59
alter-politics, 89, 117, 118, 125–28, 127, 163
Amerindians, 45
anarchy, 83, 84; term, 11, 69
ancestors, x, xi, 19, 46, 66, 78–79, 137; death of, 43; making peace with, ix; respect for, 1, 119
Anderson, Benedict, 23
animism. See Thoo Hkoh
anthropology, 7, 116; political, 22, 23
anti-politics, 126, 127
Anti-Politics Machine, The (Ferguson), 186n7
Arakan Army (AA), 187n1
Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA), 187n1
Astutui, Rita, 175
Aung San, 15
Aung San Suu Kyi, 15, 102
autonomy, 89, 95, 177; experiments in, 11–13, 142, 178; Indigenous, 12, 113, 178; pockets of, 169; spaces of, 139–41; struggle for, 163
aw loh (snatch/consume a person’s soul), 38, 44, 48, 49, 51, 116

Bah Hpaw (syncretic form of Buddhism), 20, 120, 121, 122, 132; described, 119
Ban Chaung coal mine, 105
Baw Kyaw Heh, 168, 188n8
belief, xi, 23, 25, 245, 174, 175; cultural, 88; notion of, 21, 22; supernatural, 22, 41
Bender, Barbara, 183n1
Benjamin, Walter, 116, 157, 186n10
BIA (Burma Independence Army), 14, 15
biodiversity, 160, 169, 177, 178–79
Biodiversity Conference (COP 13), UN, 159
biomedicine, 49
biotic life, 176, 177
black zones, 15, 16, 108, 109
Bleh Mah Loh River, 37, 62, 63
Bonilla, Yarimar, 88
Boutry, Maxime, 77
British Empire, 13, 31
British Royal Air Force, 31
brown zones, 108
Bryant, Raymond, xin2
Bu Thoe ridge, 7, 11, 15, 52, 68, 69; KNU state and, 84; Myanmar state and, 84; roadbuilding on, 70, 139; tea shops on, 71
Bubandt, Nils, 10, 26, 66
Buddhism, 20, 94, 96, 97, 119–20, 124, 128, 131–33. See also Bah Hpaw
Burma, Union of, 15, 186n5
Burma Independence Army (BIA), 14, 15
Büscher, Bram, 140, 179

capitalism, ix, 98. See also ceasefire capitalism
car road (kah kleh), 52, 54, 55, 57, 68, 172; construction of, 56, 70, 71, 85, 121, 126
ceasefire capitalism, 11, 104, 106, 107, 109
ceasefire territorialization, 11, 104–7, 107–10, 113, 118; attempts at, 114; creeping, 115, 123–24; forms of, 133
Central Land Committee, KNU, 151
Cheesman, Nick, 186n4
Chiang Mai, 7, 97, 110, 143, 155, 156; activism in, 151; KNU in, 93
Cho, Violet, 14, 25, 175, 181
Clausewitz, Carl von, 169, 188n13
Clifford, James, 9
collaboration, 104, 112, 125, 143, 154, 181
colonialism, 31, 36, 73, 103, 107, 126, 181
commons, 55, 56, 57; as patchworks, 65–68
Communist Manifesto, The (Marx), 33
conflict, x, 9, 10, 16, 101, 105, 109; armed, 177; cool, 120; mitigating, 177; peaceful, 97, 98; radical alternatives to, 170
conservation, x, 3, 9, 16, 145, 177; chartering course for, 147–51; experiments with, 117, 142, 178; fortress, 112; Indigenous, 12, 118–19, 139; initiatives, ix, xi, 112, 113; liberation, 12, 141, 143, 165; peace through, 165; radical alternatives to, 170; revolution in, 143, 179; as self-determination, 165–70; sovereignty and, 4; transfrontier, 155–61; zones, 5, 12, 142, 144, 159, 163
Conservation Is Our Government Now (West), 159
conservation projects, x, 3, 113, 143, 150, 159. See also liberation: conservation
consultation meetings, 3, 137, 146, 169
contact zones, 21, 89, 125, 139, 177; more-than-human, 11, 50, 126; violent, 9–10
conviviality, 8, 11, 173, 177, 179; spaces of, 139–41
cosmology, 8, 10, 41, 89, 95, 96, 126, 164, 170, 174, 175; Indigenous, 20, 70, 177–81; politics and, 21–24; Thoo Hkoh, 17, 21, 116, 117, 119, 133
cosmopolitics, 23, 126, 136, 140
counterinsurgency, 11–12, 15, 24, 102, 108–9, 167; cool/peaceful forms of, 94, 95–99; creeping, 123–24; “four cuts,” 108, 187n1; military, 106; peaceful, 97; soft, 113, 123; state-sponsored, 104
counter-mapping, 12, 113–17
countermovements, 8, 95, 109, 116, 155, 161, 164
Critchley, Simon, 140, 175
cultivation, 59, 64, 75, 129; landscapes for, 42; pattern of, 57; rice, 55, 58, 61, 62, 107. See also agriculture
culture, 4, 10, 88, 157; generification of, 116
customary rights, protecting, 152
customary territories, 12, 36, 53, 154

de la Cadena, Marisol, 22–23, 24, 51
deadfall traps, 36–38, 173
Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, UN, 150, 155
Deh Bu Noh, 71, 72, 146, 171; consultation meeting in, 3, 137
demilitarized zone (DMZ), 99, 136
Democratic Karen Buddhist Army (DKBA), 97, 124, 133, 187n2
democratization, xi, 101
Department of Transportation and Communication, 72
dependency, 10, 73, 139–40, 177
Derrida, Jacques, 33, 34
Despret, Vinciane, 51
development, 16, 97, 103, 112, 179; economic/capitalist, 109; sustainable, 159
dispossession, 24, 93, 97, 109, 111–13; accumulation by, 98; creeping, 104; economic encroachment and, 98, 99; fears of, 107, 123–24; mass, 17; processes of, 8, 98, 104; risks of, 103; technologies of, 95; threats of, 5, 8, 12, 98, 111, 115; violence and, 11, 16
DKBA (Democratic Karen Buddhist Army), 97, 124, 133, 187n2
DMZ (demilitarized zone), 99, 136

Earth Beings, 23, 24
ecologies, 3, 9, 26, 136, 175
economic activity, 13, 102, 110–13, 118
economic encroachment. See under dispossession
EGATi, 102
entanglements, 4–5, 22, 99; more-than-human, 24; politics and, 176–77; shifting, 175, 176; specters and, 176–77
environment: degradation of, 131; protecting, 4, 113, 139, 151, 166, 178; spectral hands and, 136–39
environmentalism, x, 110, 157, 166
ethnography, 11, 47, 112
Euro-Burma Office, 186n1
Everglades National Park, 145
Executive Committee, KNU, 111, 151, 152, 155
extractivism, 8, 102, 105, 112

Farmland Law, 106, 160, 162
federalism, 145, 161–65; peace building and, 163; self-governance and, 163
Ferguson, James, 177, 186n7
Fletcher, Robert, 140, 179
Food and Agricultural Organization, 149
food crisis, 105
Forest Department, 113, 114, 128–29
forest sites, sacred, 148
forestry, agro-, 39, 105
forests, ix–x, 58; community, 2, 153; cultural, 116; Indigenous people/ancestors and, xi; overexploitation of, 129–30; possessing, 1–2; protected, 1, 128–29, 134, 144
Foucault, Michel, 169, 186n7, 188n13
“four cuts” campaign, 15, 16, 102, 108–9, 187n1
free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC), 152
friends, making, 128–33, 133–36, 177. See also ray daw
frontier zones, 13, 15, 105

Gagnon, Terese, 145
galactic polities, 9, 73, 107
Galtung, Johan, 101
geo-body, 107, 115
Ghosh, Amitav, 176
ghosts, 8, 30, 34, 38, 44, 183n4; green, 43; term, 42
goh la wah (white foreigner), 19, 165
Goldman Environmental Prize, 179
governance, 3, 146; environmental, 150; indirect, 13; political, 74; rebel, 72; sovereignty and, 88
Govindrajan, Radhika, 86
Graeber, David, 84
Gravers, Mikael, 13

Hage, Ghassan, 12, 126, 127
Hallowell, Alfred Irving, 24, 47
Haraway, Donna, 21
Hartman, Saidiya, 8
Harvey, Penny, 73
Hatgyi hydroelectric dam, 70, 102–3
Hau’ofa, Epeli, 18, 36
Hayami, Yoko, 19–20
headman, 75, 80; consulting, 82; role of, 76, 77, 78
hee hkoh htee, 53, 78, 79, 80, 122, 125
hee loh (borrowed), 11, 29, 42, 54–55, 57, 60
helmets, 21, 33
histories: contact, 9, 13–20, 30; human/more-than-human, 9; Indigenous, 13, 17–20; oral, 19, 20, 36, 42, 44; war, 13–20
hkoh hkee (backward/inverted), 46, 131
hku, 43, 53, 54, 58, 60; tenure of, 59; term, 56
Hpu Noh Deh (a spectral person), 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 48, 57, 65, 148
Hpu Noh Deh Kleh (“the path that drinks your blood”), 38–43, 40, 61
Hpu Noh Noh Deh (specter), 65
Hpu Wah, 98
Hpu Waw, 31, 32, 51, 79, 180, 181
hsoo (strong/potent), 29, 37, 38, 39, 65, 66, 148
Htoo, Sheila, 100, 101
Huard, Stéphen, 60, 77
human becoming, 14
hunting, 32, 67, 129; banning, 130, 132

Indigenous peoples, 3, 8, 12, 17, 147–48; animism and, 45; colonialism and, 178, 181; concepts of, 23, 116; peace making by, ix
Indigenous practices, 8, 24, 55, 88, 168, 170
Ingold, Tim, 24, 26, 42, 47
insurgency, 15, 24, 108, 143, 187n1
internally displaced people (IDP), 100
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 101
international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), 16
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 144, 187n2; Parks for Peace and, 158; protected landscapes and, 156; Red List of, 129
Irrawaddy Delta, 15
IUCN. See International Union for Conservation of Nature

Jackson, Michael, 26

Kachin Independence Army (KIA), 103, 104
Kachin Independence Organisation, 71
Kachin State, 108
KAD (Kawthoolei Agricultural Department), 63–64, 154
kah kleh. See car road
Kamoethway (Tanintharyi District), 112, 113, 115, 116
Karen. See Pwakanyaw
Karen Department of Health and Welfare, 73
Karen Education and Culture Department, 73
Karen Environmental and Social Action Network (KESAN), 152, 155, 157, 159, 160; activism of, xiii, 5, 12, 137, 150, 154, 169; federalism and, 164; founding of, 166; influence of, 149, 151; KFD and, 153; KNU and, 144, 149, 153; peace park and, 143, 151, 156; thinking bigger and, 144, 145; visiting, 115, 143, 171
Karen Forestry Department (KFD), 130, 137, 144, 151; forest titles and, 131; KAD and, 154; KESAN and, 153; protective landscapes and, 155
Karen Human Rights Group (KHRG), 100, 105, 188n11
Karen National Association (KNA), 14
Karen National Liberation Army (KNLA), 173, 188n12; formation of, 15; KNU and, 76, 77, 158, 167; presence of, 16; Tatmadaw and, 96, 184n6
Karen National Union (KNU), 53, 75; activity of, 110–13; agriculture and, 63–64; autonomy and, 140, 163; clashes with, 100; contact zones and, 125; counterinsurgency and, 123; counterstate and, 126; as de facto state, 11, 69; “distance-demolishing” technologies and, 72; DKBA and, 133, 187n2; election and, 185–86n1; establishment of, 14–15, 73; field ownership and, 64; forest titles and, 131; governance of, 72, 151; judiciary system of, 80–81; kaw and, 152, 154; KESAN and, 144, 149, 153; KIA and, 103; KNLA and, 76, 77, 158, 167; KWO and, 81; land titles and, 131; landmines and, 34; leadership of, 93, 124; legal system of, 154, 164; liberation and, 169; NCA and, 93; policy of, 128, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156; politics of, 123, 126, 127, 131, 165, 178; roadbuilding and, 7, 52, 71, 78, 122–23, 139; Salween Peace Park and, 4; self-determination and, 5, 119, 143; sovereignty of, 74, 88, 125, 128, 133; spectral realm and, 127; Tanintharyi and, 110–13; Tatmadaw and, 35, 70, 112; tax collection and, 76
Karen Nature Conservation Group, 166
Karen Revolution, 15–17, 118
Karen State, 13, 82, 95, 144
Karen Women’s Organisation (KWO), 81, 119
Karen-land, 126, 169
Karen-ness, notion of, 14
kaw, 36, 38, 53, 54, 55; described, 66; federal, 184–85n2; mapping, 154; owners of, 78, 81, 82; as patchworks, 65–68, 145; promoting, 156; regimes of ownership and, 56–62; titles to, 153, 154
kaw k’sah (owners/lords), 55, 78, 86–87, 120–22, 134; contact zones and, 125; intervention of, 54, 85, 123, 128; rule of, 140; sovereignty of, 88, 126; tigers and, 24, 25; tirakuna and, 23; wrath of, 53, 82, 95
Kawthoolei, 14, 16, 71, 72, 126, 127, 168, 169; prefiguring, 161–65
Kawthoolei Agricultural Department (KAD), 63–64, 154
KESAN. See Karen Environmental and Social Action Network
KFD. See Karen Forestry Department
Khao Kwan (foundation in Thailand), 110, 113
Khayyat, Minura, 9, 35
KHRG (Karen Human Rights Group), 100, 105, 188n11
KIA (Kachin Independence Army), 103, 104
Kim, Eleana, 35, 102, 136
kinship, 44, 60, 66
k’la (spirit/shade), 38–39, 46, 47, 50, 51, 116, 131, 132; of rice, 48
Kleinman, Arthur, 177
k’ma (mistake), 84, 86, 121, 125, 171, 172
KNLA. See Karen National Liberation Army
Knox, Hannah, 73
KNU. See Karen National Union
“KNU Authorities-Managed Public Purpose Land,” 152
Krøijer, Stine, 164
k’sah, 29, 40, 42, 43–44, 47; ownership by, 11, 57, 60, 61, 65, 66, 78, 85; praying to, 18; presence of, 48
K’wa (ethnic group), 29, 37, 42, 184n9
KWO (Karen Women’s Organisation), 81, 119
Kwon, Heonik, 34, 51

labor: corvée, 76; forced, 108; physical, 60; ritual, 60
Lambek, Michael, 25
land laws, 104–10, 151–55. See also Vacant, Fallow and Virgin Land Management Law
land rushes, 104–10
land titles, 64, 131. See also tenure: titles
landmines, 34–36, 108
landscapes, 5, 7, 9, 10, 29, 30; contested, 3, 8, 183n1; cultural, 11, 42; described, 66; haunting, 11; landmines in, 34–36; legal, 146; natural, 11, 42, 43; negotiated, 51; political, 26; possessing, 106–7, 119, 135, 139, 141, 164; protected, 144, 155, 156, 157; social relations with, 46; spectral sovereigns and, 136; spiritual, 42; territorialization of, 131
Latour, Bruno, 126
Leach, Edmund, 22
Lehman, F. K., 87
Ler Mu Plaw, 70
liberalization, 99; political/economic, 101
liberation, 163, 169; conservation, 12, 141, 143, 165
loh (dwelling place of the dead), 1, 2, 3, 8, 131, 132, 137, 138; protecting, 61, 139
Loo Seh Buh. See Mu Kaw Lee
lu ta (offering of food), 11, 51, 79, 95, 119
Lund, Christian, 103, 104

Mae Ra Moe (refugee camp), 165, 166
making friends, 128–33, 133–36, 177. See also ray daw
Manerplaw, 97, 124, 167
mapping, 95, 106, 107, 108, 114–15, 154; as political act, 115; processes of, 113
Marx, Karl, 98
Mathews, Andrew, 66
Mauss, Marcel, 89
Mehtta, Megnaa, 88–89
Meuret, Michel, 51, 66
militarization, 95, 97, 100
Milne, Sarah, 112
mining, xi, 105; gold, 111, 123, 186n3
Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry Management, 112
missionaries, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 80
Moh La Pa Lah. See Thoo Koh
monks, 119, 121, 122, 123, 128, 139, 172; community forest and, 2; rituals and, 132; trees and, 131–33
morality, 24, 60, 81, 83
Mu Kaw Lee (the great trickster/Lucifer), 37
Mu Khah, 17, 18, 184n8
Mutraw District, 3, 13, 24, 67, 71; monsoon in, 1; political landscape of, 7; Salween Peace Park and, 5
Mutraw hills, 7, 8, 10, 12, 13; autonomy in, 174; ceasefire territorialization in, 133; conflict in, 108, 109; conservation in, 118, 174; dispossession in, 99; encounters in, 119; entanglements in, 99, 100; green ghosts in, 43; justice in, 86; landscapes along, 85, 183n1; militarization of, 95; ownership in, 96; protecting, 156; self-determination in, 155; tenure in, 105; VFV Law and, 107; war in, 180
Mutu Say Poe, 168
Myaing Gyi Ngu, 96
Myanmar Army. See Tatmadaw
Myanmar Posts and Telecommunications, 71
Myburgh, Werner, 157

nah htee (specter possessing a certain body of water), 43, 49, 50, 51, 184n5
National Ceasefire Agreement (NCA), 93, 101, 162, 188n10
National League for Democracy, 167
Native Americans, ideas/values of, x
natural resources, 22, 98
Naw Eh Oo, 18, 20
Nay Pyi Daw, 179
NCA. See National Ceasefire Agreement
Ne Win, 15
nesting, 55, 58–59, 62, 65, 67; hierarchy of, 136; ownership and, 106, 148, 164; sovereignty and, 88–89
New Mon State Party, 71
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), 7, 16, 73, 159
non-state armed groups (NSAGs), 71, 72, 104, 187n1
Northern Karen State, 13, 146
NSAGs. See non-state armed groups

obligations, ecology of, 51, 66
Ong, Andrew, 100–101, 177–78
overhunting, 128, 129–30
ownership, 126, 174; ephemeral, 54, 55, 58–59, 61, 62, 65, 67, 164; hegemonic concepts of, 85; human, 62, 65, 65–66; Indigenous, 89, 106, 142; individual, 8, 57; layers of, 55, 59; modes of, 30, 42, 54, 55, 57, 59, 64; nested, 57–61, 164; private, 61, 153; regimes of, 8, 56–62; sovereignty and, 8, 68; spectral, 11, 42, 47, 55, 60, 61, 62, 66, 79, 80, 88, 96, 106; usufruct, 58, 60–61, 65, 78

paddy fields, 61–62, 63, 64
pagodas, 34, 94, 95–99, 102, 121, 122, 130, 172; building, 96, 123, 125, 126, 133
Panglong Conference, 186n5
Panglong peace conference, 21st Century, 101
Parks for Peace, 158
Paul, Andrew, 44
peace, 18, 157, 164, 173; conference sessions, 101; conservation and, 165; cosmopolitical, 140; negative, 99–104; positive, 101; predatory, 99–104; sharing, 174, 177–81
peace garden, 160, 165
Peace Pagoda, 97
peace parks, x, 143, 157, 158, 179; term, 156, 164. See also Salween Peace Park
Peace Parks Foundation, 158
peace traps, 97, 102, 186n7
peacebuilding, ix, x, xi, 3, 4, 101, 163, 179
Peluso, Nancy, 115, 116
PETRONAS (oil and gas company), 112
pgha htoo lee hpoe (“Indigenous”), 66–67
pgha meh ay play thweh (elders), 83
phantoms, collective, 34
Po, San C., 169
Polanyi, Karl, 109, 111
political ecology, more-than-human, 20–26, 175
politics, x, 13, 26, 41, 42, 85, 88, 94, 118, 159, 178, 179; alternate mode of, 70, 89; cosmologies and, 21–24; entanglements and, 176–77; kaw, 74–84, 152; local, 69, 175; modes of, 127, 128, 138–39, 140; national/transnational, 12; pagoda, 119–23; pragmatic, 150; revolutionary, 4, 123–28, 170; roadbuilding and, 69; social worlds and, 24
possessed (term), 9, 30, 40, 46
possessed objects, 34
possession, 54, 89, 95, 106–7, 141; Indigenous, 12, 95, 106, 114, 115, 145, 155; of land, 113, 153, 164; landscapes of, 7–9; politics of, 21, 24, 42; by spirit, 40
power: imbalances of, 9–10; political, 53, 81
practices, 10, 21, 41, 96, 174, 175; Indigenous, 5–6, 70, 116, 149, 177; protecting, 152
Pratt, Mary Louise, 9, 13, 125, 126
property: individual, 60; private, 62, 64; rights to, 115
protected areas, transboundary, 158
pugmarks, 121, 172, 172, 174, 176, 180
Pwakanyaw, 13–14, 19, 31, 43, 49; Christian, 21, 25; communities, 14, 81, 162; diaspora of, 167; Salween Peace Park and, 148; self-determination and, 150; traditions, 113

Rakhine, 102
ray daw (making friends), 10, 129, 135. See also making friends
realms: human, 13, 40, 50; more-than-human, 13, 126; spectral, 11, 30, 40, 41, 48, 50, 51, 74, 80, 86, 89, 127, 177
Red List, ICUN, 129
refugees, 4, 16, 162, 166, 167, 185n2
relationships, 54, 107, 125, 128, 148, 155, 160; formal, 22; gendered, 80; hierarchical, 65; open-ended, 140; political, 178; repairing, 82, 85, 86; symbiotic, 178
revolution, 9; histories of, 13–20
rice, 48, 63, 135; bacterial infections of, 176; cultivation of, 55, 58, 61, 62, 107
rice wine, 75, 134, 185n3
rituals, 48, 49, 50, 53, 60, 62, 120, 132, 133
roadbuilding, 56, 67, 85, 121, 126; KNU and, 52, 78, 122–23, 139; politics/sovereignty and, 69; tales of, 70
Rohingya crisis, 102
Ruiz-Serna, Daniel, 41

Sahlins, Marshall, 89
Salawin National Park, 159, 188n8
Salween District, 13, 70, 96
Salween Peace Park, x, 3, 7, 8, 51, 70, 76, 139; autonomy for, 67; charter of, 147, 148, 149, 150, 153, 155; conservation and, 5, 141, 142, 155–61, 178, 179; consultation meeting for, 137, 146, 169; cooperation over, 143; countermovements and, 164; development of, x–xi, 4, 12, 144, 151, 153, 155, 156, 157, 160, 181; environmental policy and, 169; as a “flower garden” (Ta Mu Ta Hku K’Ruh), 156–57, 160, 164; Hatgyi dam and, 102–3; Indigenous people and, 17, 147–48; key events related to, 146–47; land possession and, 164; legal space for, 146–55; liberation conservation and, 12; map of, 5, 154; ownership/sovereignty and, 89; peace and, 165; politics and, 5, 165; preservation and, 5, 178; prizes for, 178, 179; self-determination and, 143, 165; thinking bigger and, 144, 145; as transboundary protected area, 163
Salween Peace Park Governing Committee, 147
Salween River, 7, 9, 10, 11, 15; armed conflict along, 177; development along, 145; fighting along, 35; KNU and, 165; militarization along, 100, 102; political predicaments along, 13, 14; possessed highlands along, 29; protected area along, 156; traffic along, 71
scale: experiments in, 11–13; messing with, 150
Scott, James C., 106
SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals, 112, 179
Second Anglo-Burmese War, 13
self-determination, 4, 5, 71, 119, 142, 155, 164, 178; conservation as, 165–70; local, 140; right to, 150; spirit of, 157; struggle for, 143
Serengeti National Park, 145
shrines, 122; household, 120, 121
Sikor, Thomas, 104
Simpson, Audra, 58, 88
Sinohydro, 102
Skidmore, Monique, 99
Smith, Martin, 16, 108
social relations, 10, 43, 44, 46, 60, 83
sovereignty, 10–11, 74, 106, 124–26, 128; conservation and, 4; food, 178; fractured/mutated forms of, 88; generating, 178; governance and, 88; hegemonic notions of, 70, 85, 88; Indigenous, 3, 4, 88, 89, 142, 163; modes of, 125, 140; ownership and, 8, 68; spectral, 11, 12, 69, 89, 97, 118, 127, 128, 134, 135–36, 139, 152, 178; state, 8, 70–74, 88, 104; understanding, 177; unsettling, 87–89
spaces: interstitial, 139–42; legal, 146–55; non-state, 9, 69
special economic zones, 159
specters, 46, 48, 50, 51, 87, 174; ecologies and, 136; entanglements and, 176–77; human affairs and, 139; place-based, 42; possessive, 41; tigers and, 176
spectral (term), 8, 10, 69, 84, 176, 177
spectral persons/presences, 10–11, 30, 38, 40, 42, 46, 65, 66, 69, 87
spirits, 38, 40, 44, 46, 49, 50; of the dead, 89; making peace with, ix; term, 42
State Law and Order Reconciliation Council (SLORC), 99
State Peace and Development Council, 99
Stengers, Isabelle, 23, 126, 128
Stoler, Ann, 33
Suphanburi, 110
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), 112, 179
swidden farming, 14, 42, 58, 104–5, 106, 116, 186n8
swidden patches, 35, 59, 63; clearing, 54; construction and, 53; cultivating, 54, 56, 57, 74; maintaining, 43; ownership of, 61, 65, 66, 78, 79
symbiotic events, 12, 125–28

Ta Bu Kyoh (mountain), 53, 54, 74, 85, 86, 87, 120, 121, 126, 172; capturing, 124; pagoda at, 122, 123, 133
ta du ta htu. See taboos
ta du ta pluh, 44, 45
ta du ta yah hku (cool/peaceful conflict), 94, 95, 96, 102, 118, 120, 123, 124, 133
Ta Htee Ta Daw K’sah (the sovereign of all specters), 133, 134, 135, 138, 170; offerings to, 136; sovereignty of, 137, 139, 140
Ta K’Thwee Duh, 7, 8, 15, 17, 29; Buddhists in, 119; ceasefire capitalism and, 105; environmental concerns in, 131; fieldwork in, 47; monks in, 128; overhunting and, 128, 130
Ta K’Thwee Duh Kaw, 36, 56, 62, 63, 65, 67, 74, 124; boundaries of, 75; pagoda in, 96
ta lu (“the spirit house”), 49, 50
ta mu khah (spectral people), 38, 39–40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 55, 176
ta mu ta hku (peace), 96, 160
ta taw ta loh (that which is true), 46, 134
ta taw ta loh kaw (the realm of that which is true), 46, 131, 134
ta thoo ta pgho (potency), 18, 37, 65, 66, 89, 148, 186n3
taboos (ta du ta htu), 60, 62, 87; observing, 11, 43, 67; transmitting, 149; violating, 44, 58, 121, 171, 173, 180
tama (action), 50; tana (“belief”) and, 21, 25, 175
Tambiah, Stanley, 73
Tanawthari Landscape of Life, 178
Tanintharyi (region), 14, 105, 109, 116, 149, 170; activism in, 114; conservation initiatives in, 113; counter- mapping in, 117; countermovements in, 111–12; economic activity in, 110–13; as frontier, 110; gold mining in, 123; green territoriality in, 110–13; KNU activity in, 110–13
Tanintharyi Nature Reserve Project (TNRP), 112, 115
Tannenbaum, Nicola, 133
Tarkapaw Youth Group, 105
Tatmadaw, 5, 111, 133, 162, 168, 176; bargaining with, 104; “black zone”/“fire free zone” and, 7; clashes with, 100; countering, 131; counterinsurgency by, 11–12, 15, 94, 108–9, 187n1; KNU and, 9, 112, 188n10; land concessions and, 104; landmines and, 34; Manerplaw and, 124; militarization by, 97, 100; Mutraw highlands and, 108; rapprochement with, 93; resistance to, 126, 127; roadbuilding and, 70; territorialization of, 97; Thee Mu Hta and, 107
Tatmadaw army, 95, 100
Tatmadaw soldiers, 71, 96, 166, 167, 168
Taw Oo (Taungoo), 168
technology, 107; digital, 185n1; “distance-demolishing,” 72; legal, 104; legislative, 106
Tenasserim River and Indigenous Peoples’ Network (TRIP NET), 110, 161
tenure, 58–59, 59–60, 150; collective, 153; customary, 105, 152; Indigenous, 59, 61; titles, 151–55
territoriality, 95, 106, 131; green, 110–13, 178; military, 104, 109; state, 109; technology of, 107, 115. See also ceasefire territorialization
territories, customary, 12, 36, 53, 154
Thanbyah, T., 14
Thaton (Doo Tha Htoo) District, 13, 158
Thee Mu Hta (military base), 103, 109, 184n6; cautionary tale of, 97, 98, 123, 124, 133; Tatmadaw and, 15–16, 96–97, 107
thinking bigger, 143–45
Thoo Hkoh (“animism”), 133, 173, 174, 175, 180; definition of, 17, 21–22; practices, 116, 117, 119; rites of, 49; tana and, 25; violence and, 24
Thoo K’Bee Duh, 85–86
tigers, 4, 24, 25, 82, 87, 129, 171; political effects of, 173; presence of, 176; pugmarks of, 121, 172, 172, 174, 176, 180; sightings of, 172; specters and, 176
TNRP (Tanintharyi Nature Reserve Project), 112, 115
Total (oil and gas company), 112
Toungoo (Ta-Oo) Division, 13
transboundary protected areas, 143, 163
translation, 10, 113–17; experiments in, 11–13; pragmatic, 160
Transnational Institute, 151
trees: Buddhist monks and, 131–33; transformative, 61–62
TRIP NET (Tenasserim River and Indigenous Peoples’ Network), 110, 161
Tsing, Anna Lowenhaupt, 66
21st Century Panglong peace conference, 101

U Thuzana, 97, 120, 124
Umbilical Cord Forest, 116, 186n9
UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees), 4, 167
Union of Burma, 15, 186n5
United Nationalities Federal Council (UNFC), 103–4
United Nations, 101, 112, 149
United Nations Biodiversity Conference (COP 13), 159
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People, 150, 155
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 178
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), 4, 167
usufruct, 42, 58, 61, 60, 62, 65, 66, 75, 78

Vacant, Fallow and Virgin Land Management Law (VFV Law, 2012), 105, 106, 107, 108, 160, 162
Vigh, Henrik, 101
Village Act (1887), 77
violence, 10, 24, 31; armed, 101–2; gender-based, 82; political, ix
Viveiros de Castro, Eduardo, 45
Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries, and Forests, 149

Wade, Jonathan, 17
war zones, 3, 4, 156; agriculture and, 100
Way Pgha (forest), 65, 131, 137, 138, 139, 172; described, 129; hunting/fishing in, 130, 133; protecting, 130, 132
Wee Hta Baw Mu (oracle), 180, 181
West, Paige, 116, 159, 160
white zones, 15, 108, 208
Winichakul, Thongchai, 73, 107, 108
witchcraft law, 72
Woods, Kevin, 11, 104, 109, 113
World Bank, 101
World War II, 14, 17, 31

Yadana pipeline, 112
Yu Wah Duh, 41, 98, 180
Yunzalin River, 38, 52, 81
Y’wa (demiurge), 19, 36–38, 89, 135, 184n8, 187n3; origin of, 17–18; winnowing by, 181
Y’wa Ma Htu Lay (Y’wa’s Deadfall Trap Rocks), 36–38, 59, 62, 65, 86

zoning, 114

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