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INDEX
Page numbers in italic refer to illustrations.
- agriculture, 2, 45, 76, 85, 87, 98, 157; agribusiness, 143, 145; cash crops, 117; FAO and, 3–4; LFA and, 26, 142; subsistence, 121. See also contract farming; Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; rice cultivation; sharecropping of rubber; shifting cultivation
- Air America, 58, 63
- Alden Wily, Liz, 6
- anticommunism, 51, 54, 55, 56, 61, 65, 73, 126; Halpern, 71
- ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations), 30
- Asian Development Bank (ADB), 27, 29, 30–31, 37–38, 40, 41, 80
- authority-gap narratives, 5–6, 10, 22, 102, 150
- banks. See Asian Development Bank (ADB); state development banks (Laos); World Bank
- Battle of Namtha, 57, 58, 62, 63, 98
- Belt and Road Initiative. See China: Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
- Bentham, Jeremy, 84, 95
- Birgegard, L., 82–95
- Blaufarb, Douglas, 50–53, 56–58, 63–66, 72, 73
- Bokeo (province), 43, 57, 103, 107, 108, 109, 113, 115; maps, 46, 110; purge of foreigners, 126; Sino-Lao Rubber Company, 33, 34. See also Nam Nyu
- Bolikhamxai, 80, 91, 93, 95, 133
- Bolisat Ltd. (pseudonym), 1, 20–22, 42, 45, 105–10, 127, 128, 145–46; Khet Nam Fa, 116–25; maps, 1, 2, 104, 129, 138–39, 140
- Bo Yibo, 126–27
- BPKP. See Mountainous Areas Development Company (BPKP)
- Brazil, 4, 24, 154
- Brenner, Neil, 127
- BRI. See China: Belt and Road Initiative (BRI)
- British in Burma, 89
- Burma, 56, 57; British colonial forestry, 89; KMT, 58, 71; Lahu, 62; Shan, 58, 62; Wa, 62. See also Myanmar
- business models of rubber plantations, 8, 33, 103, 105; concessions, 22–24, 33, 43, 103–4, 121; concessions vs. contract farming, 8, 43, 45–46, 103–5, 119–20; “4 + 1” (quasi-concession) variant, 22, 22–23, 45, 46, 49, 101, 103, 119, 124, 127, 155; “4 + 1” areas (Bolisat Ltd.), 34, 45, 105–7, 109, 118–23, 141–42, 145, 146; independent smallholding, 8, 26, 106, 169n93; slippage between “3 + 2” policy and “4 + 1” variant, 45, 49, 103, 105; “3 + 2” (contract farming) policy, 21–24, 26, 43–45, 49, 101, 103, 118–20, 124, 127; “3 + 2” areas (Bolisat Ltd.), 105, 106, 110–11, 120, 128, 141–42. See also managed enclosure
- Cambodia, 24, 28, 29, 30, 76, 152
- cartography. See maps
- Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 17, 50, 53, 56–59, 63, 67–71; Nam Nyu, 52; Phillips, 65, 70; STOL airplanes and sites, 57, 58, 63, 112; US congressional investigation, 68
- Chao La, 61, 62
- Chao Mai, 61
- China, 3, 4, 5, 16; in Africa, 7, 15; “Beijing Consensus,” 16, 155; Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), 15, 24, 27, 29, 30, 150; Bo Yibo, 126–27; Burma relations, 58–59; Cold War, 24–25; Deng Xiaoping, 132; development assistance, 16, 23–24, 27, 148; “Going Out” policy, 6, 26, 33, 48; Lahu, 62; Mao Zedong, 126–27; Nyíri, 6–7; opium replacement policy, 47–48, 148; People’s Liberation Army, 59, 62; roadbuilding, 66–68; Soviet relations, 75; US relations, 69; Vietnam relations, 75–76. See also Yunnan
- Chinese Nationalist Party. See Kuomintang (KMT)
- Chinese rubber projects, 1, 5, 8, 13, 15, 16, 20–49, 102–29, 150–51. See also Bolisat Ltd. (pseudonym); Sino-Lao Rubber Company; Yunnan Rubber Company
- CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
- Cohen, Paul, 160n22
- Cold War, 11, 13, 26, 29–30, 49–73, 100–101, 115, 127, 151; China, 24–25
- Committee for Land Management and Land-Forest Allocation, 137
- concessions, xi, 8, 15, 136, 152; inventorying, 48, 145, 151, 152; logging, 128–29, 131; Lao national moratorium, 43, 143; taxation, 146. See also business models of rubber plantations; natural resource rents
- contract farming, 8, 21, 33, 45, 105, 116, 120. See also business models of rubber plantations
- corruption, 5, 55, 131, 156, 160n22
- corvée labor, 29, 61
- counterinsurgency, 56, 64, 65, 72, 73, 77, 87, 89, 93
- coups, 51, 55, 56
- dams, 16, 138
- deforestation, 129, 136
- Deitchman, Seymour, 72
- denationalization, 50–73, 77, 101
- De Soto, Hernando: Mystery of Capital, 157
- development assistance, 2–9, 37–38, 153–57; German, 187n26, 188–89n45; neoliberalism and, 3, 6, 30, 48, 132, 153–54; Swedish, 17–18, 79–82, 84. See also Asian Development Bank (ADB); China; Lao-Swedish Forestry Project (LSFP); state development banks (Lao); US Agency for International Development (USAID); World Bank
- Diouf, Jacques, 3–4, 7, 9
- disappeared people, 125–26
- displacement and resettlement, 90, 91–92, 99, 109, 111–16, 118–20, 123; map, 110
- Dommen, Arthur, 70, 174n97
- Dulles, John Foster, 126
- economic corridors, 30, 31, 48. See also Northern Economic Corridor (NEC)
- ecotourism, 125
- Edelman, Marc, 152
- Eisenhower, Dwight, 55, 56, 126
- Elden, Stuart, 127
- enclosure. See managed enclosure
- ethnic groups. See indigenous peoples
- eucalyptus, 27, 39
- Evans, Grant, 70, 72, 178n45
- Evrard, Olivier, 111, 112
- exports: rubber, 32, 117; timber, 79, 133–34
- Fall, Bernard, 70, 174n97
- farming. See agriculture
- Ferguson, James, 7, 154
- First Indochina War, 54, 55, 62, 71
- focal sites (focal development sites), 77, 91, 92, 93–95, 96, 114, 116, 119; New Economic Mechanism, 132. See also Khet Nam Fa
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). See UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
- food security, 2, 3, 82, 84, 114, 124
- forest regeneration. See reforestation
- forestry, 76, 78–85, 91, 92, 94–95, 99–100, 108, 132; colonial practices, 77, 78–79; maps, 81, 139. See also Land and Forest Allocation (LFA) program; logging; Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry; sawmills
- formal geography, ix, 1, 17, 129, 132, 134–47, 140, 153, 157. See also maps; property formalization; territorialization; zoning
- Foucault, Michel, 95, 102; governmentality, 84, 95; micropolitics, 102; Security, Territory, Population, 84–85
- French colonialism, 24, 25, 28–29, 30, 53, 54, 56; Blaufarb and, 65; forestry, 78–79; montagnard program, 61–62; opium, 61; roads, 68; “unblocking,” 29, 132; William Young and, 59
- French war with Indochina. See First Indochina War
- Garnier, Francis, 28, 29
- Geneva Accords (1954), 171n23
- Geneva Accords on Laos (1962), 56, 58, 59
- geography, formal. See formal geography
- global land rush, vii–viii, 2–10, 14, 48–49, 153–54. See also land grabbing
- Golden Quadrangle, 27, 30
- Golden Triangle, 21, 59, 146
- Goudineau, Yves, 111, 112
- GRAIN (organization), 3, 4, 14
- Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), 30, 32; map, 31
- GTZ (organization), 187n26, 188–89n45
- Gunn, Geoffrey, 61
- indigenous peoples, 21, 58, 61, 62, 94, 99, 112–15, 119; “hill tribes,” 51, 53, 56–57, 62, 72–73, 150. See also Hmong people; Iu Mien (Yao) people; Khmu people; Lahu (Muser; Kui) people
- Indochina War, 1946–54. See First Indochina War
- Indonesia, 4, 89, 152
- infrastructure, ix, 29, 37, 66, 145, 167n76. See also Northern Economic Corridor (NEC); roadbuilding; roadless areas; STOL (short takeoff and landing) airplanes and airstrips
- Iu Mien (Yao) people, 59, 61, 99, 112, 115, 180n3
- Lahu (Muser; Kui) people, 21, 62, 99, 112–16, 119, 120, 180n3
- Land and Forest Allocation (LFA) program, 26, 39, 95, 96, 111, 135–42, 156, 187n26; zoning maps, 107, 108, 113, 129, 130, 137–41, 140, 141, 143
- land concessions. See concessions
- land grabbing, vii, ix, 2–6, 8, 19; in the NEC, 22–24, 37, 39–40, 116–19. See also global land rush; managed enclosure
- land laws, 6, 118, 129, 136, 183n56
- land titling. See property formalization
- Land Management Authority, national. See National Land Management Authority (NLMA)
- land surveying. See surveying of land
- Lansdale, Edward, 65
- Lao Communist Party, 64
- Lao Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. See Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry
- Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (“Lao Party”), 75, 126, 178n45
- Lao-Swedish Forestry Project (LSFP), 17–18, 79–82
- “Lao Theung” people, 94, 99, 111, 119, 180n3
- Lartéguy, Jean, 70
- Latour, Bruno, 146–47
- LFA. See Land and Forest Allocation (LFA) program
- Li, Tania, 7, 9, 152
- logging, 128, 130–31, 133–35, 144–45, 187n25
- Long (district), 102, 109
- Long Cheng, 58, 63, 64, 65, 173n63
- LSFP. See Lao-Swedish Forestry Project (LSFP)
- Luang Namtha (city and province), 7–8, 25, 32, 33, 43, 44, 45, 57; maps, 46, 110; provincial museum, 98–99, 180n1; roads and roadbuilding, 67, 68, 69; rubber, 150
- Luang Prabang (city and province), 28, 29, 59, 63, 70, 103; map, 46
- Malaya, 24, 54
- Malaysia, 48
- managed enclosure, 6–9, 12–13, 33, 45, 77, 89, 90, 105–7, 116–18, 153, 157; LFA, 141; partial, 12, 120, 121; socially uneven distribution of enclosure, 9, 13, 107–25, 127, 155
- Mao Zedong, 126–27
- maps, 17, 26, 41, 60, 108, 111, 112–13, 129–32; Bolisat Ltd., 1–2, 104, 129, 138–39, 140; cartographic genealogy, 138–39, 140; economic corridors, 31; forestry, 81, 139; French, 99; large Chinese rubber plantations, 46; LFA zoning, 107, 108, 113, 129, 130, 137–41, 140, 143; Luang Namtha provincial museum, 98, 99, 119; state forest enterprises, 80, 81; STOL sites, 63, 112; “then make land maps,” 137, 153; US, 112; Vieng Phouka, 130. See also formal geography; property formalization
- maquis (militias), 56, 57, 59, 61, 64, 75, 76, 85, 113
- Marx, Karl, 12, 102, 127, 181n10; primitive accumulation, 7, 9, 12, 84
- McCoy, Alfred, 61–62, 63
- Mekong River, 28, 29, 69
- micro-geopolitics, 11–13, 98–127
- Mien people. See Iu Mien (Yao) people
- migration, 77, 93. See also displacement and resettlement; refugees
- Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, 34–37, 134, 145
- Mon-Khmer groups, 61, 62
- Mountainous Areas Development Company (BPKP), 133, 134
- muang (region/territory), 10, 116
- Muang Houng, 18, 80, 91, 92–95, 119; map, 81
- Muser people. See Lahu (Muser; Kui) people
- Myanmar, 47, 124; Northern Economic Corridor, 27–28, 30. See also Burma
- The Mystery of Capital (De Soto), 157
- Na Le (district), 102, 109, 111, 112, 114; map, 110
- Nam Ha National Protected Area, 109
- Nam Nyu, 17, 52–53, 58–59, 61–67, 69, 113, 173n63; map, 110; Nam Nyu special zone, 52, 107, 115
- Namtha, Battle of. See Battle of Namtha
- Nathan Associates, 38–39
- National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, 43
- National Forestry Conference, May 1989, 134–35
- National Land Management Authority (NLMA), 16–17, 110, 144
- national security. See security (military and economic)
- natural resource rents, 14, 144–46, 153, 155–57. See also concessions
- NEC. See Northern Economic Corridor (NEC)
- Neutralists, 51, 55, 58, 64, 66, 68. See also non-alignment
- New Economic Mechanism, 75, 96, 132
- Nixon, Richard, 66, 69
- non-alignment, 55
- Northern Economic Corridor (NEC), 16, 24, 27–32, 37–41, 48, 58, 116–17; feeder roads, 42, 116; groundwork/roadbuilding, 66, 68; maps, 31, 46, 104, 110; territorialization, 53
- Nyíri, Pál, 6–7
- Pakbeng, 69
- Paksan Regional Project (forestry), 81, 82–83, 92–93, 95
- Paru (Police Aerial Reinforcement Unit), 56–57, 63
- paternalism, 116, 118
- Pathet Lao, 55, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69. See also Battle of Namtha; Lao People’s Revolutionary Party (“Lao Party”)
- Perelman, Michael, 12, 101
- Persson, Reidar, 79
- Phillips, Rufus, 65, 70, 72, 173–74n77
- Phya Long Hai, 61
- poppy cultivation. See opium and poppy cultivation
- “population management work,” 74–97, 116, 121, 129, 130, 151; and New Economic Mechanism, 132
- poverty, 21, 119, 120; alleviation strategies, 25, 37, 38, 39, 46, 93, 103, 128–29; “new poverty,” 99
- primitive accumulation, 7, 9, 12, 13, 84, 101; of forestland, 99
- private investment, 3, 29
- Project Camelot, 72
- property formalization, 39, 48, 117, 157, 188n45; land titling, 39, 145, 156, 163n67. See also formal geography
- RAND Corporation, 50
- reforestation, 27, 89, 90, 129, 139
- refugees, 25, 29, 57, 58, 61, 63, 78, 82
- resettlement. See displacement and resettlement
- resource rents. See natural resource rents
- rice cultivation, 120; dryland shifting (“upland”), 9, 21, 25, 41–42, 44, 83, 90, 121, 122; lowland (paddy), 25, 39, 83, 88–89
- Rigg, Jonathan, 99
- roadbuilding, 29, 37, 66–68, 133. See also Northern Economic Corridor (NEC)
- roadless areas, 51, 53, 58, 59, 60, 65
- Robinson, Cedric, 101
- Roosevelt, Franklin, 54
- Rose, Nikolas, 147
- Royal Lao Army, 56, 57, 62, 69, 98
- Royal Lao government, 58, 67, 70, 79, 178n45
- rubber, 1–2, 8, 13, 16, 20–49, 100–128, 139, 150–51; cold-tolerant varieties, 24, 25; contract-based smallholder production, 34–35; exports, 32, 117; Indonesia, 89; introduction to Laos, 24; plantations with upland rice, 122; taxation, 117, 145. See also Bolisat Ltd. (pseudonym); business models of rubber plantations; Sino-Lao Rubber Company; Yunnan Rubber Company
- sampathan (concession), 121, 136
- sawmills, 80, 128–29, 133
- Saysomboun special zone, 52, 85; map, 81
- Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 70
- Scott, James, 10, 52
- “secret war.” See United States: “unconventional”/secret war in Laos
- security (military and economic), 17–18, 74–97; Foucault on, 84; insurgency, 75, 85, 90, 91, 100, 108, 113; uplands and, 52, 76. See also counterinsurgency; food security
- SFEs. See state forest enterprises (SFEs)
- Shan people, 58, 62
- Shan state, 30, 62, 63
- sharecropping of rubber. See business models of rubber plantations
- shifting cultivation, 52, 81, 82, 83, 89, 118; replacement of, 129. See also rice cultivation: dryland shifting (“upland”)
- Siam, 28, 29
- Sing (district), 28, 98, 99, 114–15
- Sino-Lao Rubber Company, 32, 35–37, 42, 45, 103, 104, 105, 114, 128; collapse, 129
- “Sixteen Musketeers,” 63
- Smith, Adam, 12
- Sombath Somphone, 125
- Sompawn Khantisouk, 125–26
- songserm (“promotion”), 2, 43, 105, 121, 168n88
- Soto, Hernando de. See De Soto, Hernando
- Souvanna Phouma, 69
- sovereignty, 6, 127, 150, 151, 153
- Soviet Union, 54, 55, 67, 75, 80, 126, 132
- state development banks (Lao), 26, 27
- state forest enterprises (SFEs), 80–86, 81, 88–95, 133, 135
- state-owned enterprises, 89, 133
- STOL (short takeoff and landing) airplanes and airstrips, 57, 58, 63, 85, 112, 113; map, 81
- Stoler, Ann, 152
- Stuart-Fox, Martin, 53, 78–79, 147
- surveying of land, 41, 103, 137
- Sweden, 84
- Swedish-Lao Forestry Project. See Lao-Swedish Forestry Project (LSFP)
- taxation, 6, 27, 42, 61, 141, 144–46, 183n55; land tax, 39, 42, 117, 137. See also property formalization
- territorialization, 53, 123, 131
- territorial sovereignty. See sovereignty
- Thailand, 30, 69, 75, 76; Battle of Namtha and, 58; domestic logging ban, 133; French colonial era, 28, 30; KMT, 58, 71; Lahu, 62; map, 31; Northern Economic Corridor, 27–28, 30, 32, 59, 67, 68; Paru, 56–57, 63; rubber, 16, 24; state enterprises, 48; United States and, 54, 56–57, 58, 62, 63, 71; Xayaboury war, 75. See also Siam
- Thongphachanh, 82–95
- timber cutting. See logging
- Touby Li Fung, 61
- Trankell, Ing-Britt, 90–91, 95
- Trinquier, Roger, 56, 61, 70, 73
- Tuffin, Bill, 126
- “turning battlefields into marketplaces,” 30, 49, 75, 101, 151
- “unblocking,” 29, 30, 132
- UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 3
- United States, 11, 13; airstrips, 57, 58, 63, 81, 85, 112, 113; bombing by, 64; Congress, 68–69; Defense Department, 72; Dulles, 126; Eisenhower, 55, 56, 126; FDR, 54; Geneva Accords of 1954, 171n23; Green Berets, 57; JFK, 54, 55; Nixon, 66, 69; Project Camelot, 72; Strategic Hamlet Program, 65; “unconventional”/secret war in Laos, 17, 50–73, 85; Washington Consensus, 16, 154. See also Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
- US Agency for International Development (USAID), 57, 58, 63, 65, 70
- USSR. See Soviet Union
- Vandergeest, Peter, 99–100, 131
- Vang Pao, 56, 59, 61
- Vieng Phoukha (district), 20–22, 22–23, 102–25; maps, 104, 110
- Viet Minh, 56, 62
- Vietnam, 29, 30, 54, 65, 178n45; China relations, 75–76; Doi Moi, 132; military presence in Laos, 76, 86–87; rubber companies, 16, 43; Strategic Hamlet Program, 65
- Vietnam War, 58, 62
- Xayaboury (Sainyabuli), 75