`INDEX`

Abel, Clarke, 3–4
Albion, Robert Greenhalgh, 117, 139
An Guoheng, 153
An Lushan Rebellion, 213n15
Annam, present-day Vietnam, 130
Averill, Stephen C., 167

Baltic Sea, 212n7
bamboo: market for, 70; plantations of, 40, 60, 75, 93, 95; state monopolies on, 105; taxes and tariffs on, 99, 100, 104, 106, 107, 109, 112; uses for, 4, 149. See also China fir; nanmu; pine
Beijing: connection to Yellow Sea, 119; under the Ming, 15, 65, 130, 141, 144, 146; supply of timber to, 110, 113, 114, 150; tariffs collected at, 215n74; under the Yuan, 125, 144
Bello, David A., 13
biome modification: by fire, 22, 23, 36, 192nn6,7; by tree planting, 11, 13, 22–23, 35
Book of Tree Planting (“hunchback Guo”), 26, 35
Bozhou native office, present-day Zunyi, Guizhou, 152
A Brush-Pen Hatpin’s Critical Points (Erbi kenqing), 91–94, 210n74
Buddhism, 24
Bureau of Military Farms (Tuntian Qingli Si), 108

cadastres. See forest surveys; land surveys
Cai Jing, 16, 33–34, 36, 43, 62, 162
Cai Kejian, 68
Campbell, Aurelia, 142
Caochuan zhi (Treatise on transport ships), 134, 138
Champa, present-day Vietnam, 128
Chan, Hok-lam, 130
Chan, Wing-hoi, 205n69
Changsha, Hunan, 127
Chaozhou, Guangdong, 48
Cheju Island, 126, 127
Chen Keyun, 84–85, 94–95, 207n30, 208n40
Chen Xu, 133–34
Chen Youliang, 129, 130, 220n84
Chengdu, Sichuan, 144
China fir: distinction between white fir and red fir, 225n5; as dominant tree in South China plantations, 4, 55, 56, 70; Latin name, 190n17; native range, 12; in shipbuilding, 118, 119; silviculture of, 87, 211n88; sizes and grading, 113; susceptibility to fire, 95, 211n91; tariffs on, 109, 115, 215n71. See also bamboo; nanmu; pine
China’s March toward the Tropics (Wiens), 165
Chizhou, Anhui, 69, 94, 103, 218n49
Chŏlla Province, Korea, 126, 127
Chu kingdom, 122
Chuanzheng xin shu (New treatise on shipyard administration), 138
Coggins, Chris, 211n93
Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 36, 162
Collected Statutes of the Great Ming (Da Ming huidian), 171, 215n71
Columbus, Christopher, 131
commercial forestry: and concepts of landownership, 41–42, 56–57; environmental and social costs of, 8–9, 75, 95–96, 161, 164; and expanding state control, 5–6, 13–14; legal framework for, 38–39; varieties cultivated for, 4–5, 25, 40, 55, 60, 70, 110. See also tree planting
Communist Revolution, 17–18, 167, 217n5
Complete Book of Agricultural Administration (Xu Guangqi), 94
corvée labor: attempts to escape, 74–75; drafted by noble and monastic estates, 25; during Qin and Han dynasties, 24; reforms of system of, 67, 68, 76, 161; replacement tax on, 195n69; for shipbuilding, 120, 123, 124, 139; supplying government with part-time workers, 58; tribute and levies as form of, 203n32; for woodcutting and logging expeditions, 10–11, 62, 65–66, 100, 194n33. See also labor
Cunningham, Allan, 190n17
Cunningham, James, 7, 190n17
Cunninghamia lanceolata. See China fir

Da Ming huidian (Collected statutes of the Great Ming), 171, 215n71
Da Ming lü (Great Ming Code), 49, 89–90, 93, 209n65
Dadu, present-day Beijing, 125, 144
Dai Jin, 147
Daoism, 24, 145
Dashenggang, Jiangsu, 108
DeLanda, Manuel, 189n4
Deng Xiaoping, 167
Dengzhou, Shandong, 125
Dingzhou, Hebei, 30
Dong people, 222n11
Dongting Lake, 11, 122
Dreyer, Edward, 132, 220n84
Dykstra, Maura, 210n73

East China Sea, 120
Elvin, Mark, 10, 165–66, 190n29
England, 98
environmental degradation: erosion and sedimentation, 8, 17, 29, 166; and loss of “ecosystem services,” 164; loss of wild habitat, 8, 10, 60, 75, 165–66; reduction in biodiversity, 11, 13; susceptibility to wildfire, 95, 211n91
Erbaugh, Mary S., 167
Erbi kenqing (A brush-pen hatpin’s critical points), 91–94, 210n74
Essays on Timber Rafting in the Western Regions (Gong Hui), 140, 149fig., 150–51, 152fig., 153fig., 154fig.
Essential Arts to Nourish the People (Jia Sixie), 25
European forestry, 6–7, 9, 98, 164–65, 208n33

Fang Guozhen, 129, 130
fengshui, 96, 168, 212n96
fir. See China fir
forest, as term, 6–7, 161, 169. See also woodlands
forest deeds: as evidence of ownership, 41, 80, 81–82; of the Fang family, 84; as historical evidence, 10, 35, 206n1, 207n28; in shareholding arrangements, 19, 84–87, 93, 208nn32,40, 209n54; of a single Quanzhou property, 80–81; of the Tan family, 77–79; and tax law, 82, 92–93. See also landowners
forest surveys: categories in, 52; and the Chinese property system, 40–44, 89–90, 161, 162; in Europe and Northeast Asia, 6, 56, 201n73. See also land surveys
forestry. See commercial forestry
Forests and Sea Power (Albion), 117, 139
France, 36, 98
fuel: commodification of, 30; for industrial purposes, 24, 70, 72, 106; labor for cutting, 8, 10, 64, 69; levies and tariffs on, 58, 64, 65, 100, 107, 109–10, 114; from open-access woodlands, 8, 27, 32, 95–96, 164; reed, 64, 100, 107, 109, 215n71; tree planting for, 25, 55; use of coal as, 29, 169
Fujian Province: forest fire risk in, 211n91; forest registration in, 51; Hakka people of, 14, 61, 71, 73; highland peoples of, 73; land surveys of, 13, 44, 48, 52, 173; logging in, 132; maritime traders from, 119; non-agrarian goods from, 64–65; during the Qing dynasty, 210n71; shipbuilding in, 119, 123, 124, 131; taxation in, 67, 75, 130, 200nn57,58; tea production in, 70; timber trade in, 72; topography, 11; tree plantations in, 95, 161
Funada Yoshiyuki, 202n19
Fuzhou, Fujian, 44, 48, 200n46, 218n49
Fuzhou, Jiangxi, 200n46

Gan River, 11
Ganzhou, Jiangxi, 55, 112–13, 175table, 176, 201n66, 204n41
Ge Gaiyi, 68
German principalities, 36, 56, 98
Gernet, Jacques, 220n92
Goldstone, Jack A., 131
Gong Hui, 140, 150–51
Grand Canal: and Beijing’s timber supply, 141; building of transport ships for, 108, 121; and Hangzhou’s timber supply, 101–2; Ming restoration of, 15, 65, 66; position of Kaifeng relative to, 28; presence of Huizhou merchants along, 72; Yellow Sea as alternative to, 119, 129; Yuan defeat of Song navy at, 126
The Great Divergence (Pomeranz), 166
Great Ming Code (Da Ming lü), 49, 89–90, 93, 209n65
Gu Zuo, 144
Guangdong Province: fir plantations in, 55; forest registration in, 51, 52; Hakka people of, 14, 61, 71, 73; land surveys of, 13, 44, 48; and logging expenses, 148; maritime traders from, 119; naval fleet in, 120; reform of corvée system in, 67; shipbuilding in, 124; tax forgiveness in, 103; timber trade and production in, 72, 161; topography, 11
Guanghua, Hubei, 125
Guangxi Province: forest registration in, 51, 52; forest surveys in, 13, 44; land surveys in, 48; presence of Huizhou merchants in, 72; taxation in, 103; tree plantations in, 55, 161
Guangxin, Jiangxi, 52, 70, 175, 200n45
Guangzhou, Guangdong, 34, 48, 99, 121, 124
Gui E, 68
Guizhou Province: depletion of old growth forests in, 142, 156; falling outside the state’s reach, 48; Ming-era logging in, 147, 148, 155, 157, 225nn73,80; spread of commercial silviculture to, 159, 161; timber tributes from native officials in, 146

Hai Rui, 68
Hakka people: common surnames of, 72, 206n70; crops cultivated by, 17, 176; diasporic distribution, 74map; and major civil conflicts, 17–18, 166–67; as marginal, itinerant labor force, 14, 61, 72–73, 76, 89; older theory of origins of, 205n69. See also non-Han peoples
Han dynasty, 22, 23–24, 32, 142–43
Han Lin’er, 81, 129, 199n40
Han River, 125
Han Shantong, 81
Han Wendi, 193n17
Han Yong, 67
Hangzhou: as capital of Southern Song, 28, 38; capture by Jin armies, 122; customs station, 108, 111, 113, 133, 139; natural environment surrounding, 34, 101; tariffs collected at, 104, 109, 216nn89,91; timber trade in, 71, 72, 101–2, 114, 115, 215n72. See also Southern Song dynasty; Zhejiang Province
Hansen, Valerie, 197n9
Hartwell, Robert, 194n42
Haw, Stephen G., 202nn11,19
Hebei Province, 127
Henan Province, 45, 199n34, 200n58
Hengyang County, Hunan, 55
Hezhou, Guangxi, 31, 123
Ho, Ping-ti, 171
Holland, 36, 98, 162–63, 212n7
Hong Xiuquan, 167
Hongwu emperor. See Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Emperor)
household registration, 49, 59, 60, 61–68, 73–76
Huai River, 121
Huai’an, Jiangsu, 133
Huainan, present-day Anhui and Jiangsu, 44, 103
Huang, Ray, 171, 205n53
Huang Yingnan, 43
Huangmu Ting (Imperial Timber Pavilion), 135
Hubei Province, 44, 103, 157, 159. See also Huguang Province
Huguang Province: building of transport ships in, 110; land surveys of, 48; logging costs in, 148; and Ming building projects, 130, 144, 146, 147, 155, 157; taxation in, 200n58. See also Hunan Province
Huizhou, present-day Anhui: archival records for, 50, 77, 206n1; forest labor in, 61, 73; as “hotbed of litigation,” 91, 210n74; lineage ownership of forests in, 207n30; logging restrictions in, 30; merchants from, 14, 71–72, 115; in range of China fir, 12; taxable acreage in, 44, 46, 81–82, 172–73, 197n3, 198nn17,21; timber tariffs in, 106; tree plantations in, 35, 83, 94–95; during Yuan-Ming interregnum, 47, 81
Hunan Province: breakaway kingdom of Chu, 122; forest registration in, 51, 161; land surveys of, 44; logging in, 104–5, 155, 157; shipbuilding in, 121; tariff collection in, 111; tree plantations in, 55, 70; tributaries of the Yangzi in, 11, 122. See also Huguang Province
Huzhou, Zhejiang, 35, 111

Imperial Timber Pavilion (Huangmu Ting), 135
India, 24

Japan, 9–10, 15, 34, 98, 126–27, 190n28, 208n35
Java, 15
Jeju Island, 126, 127
Jeolla Province, Korea, 126, 127
Ji Gongzhi, 126, 127
Jia Sixie, 25
Ji’an, Jiangxi, 70, 198n17
Jianchang, Jiangxi, 175table, 176
Jiangnan region: as cradle of human-planted forests, 35, 159, 161; forest registration in, 51, 52–53; history and geography of, 11–12; land surveys of, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 199n34; timber tariffs in, 106, 107, 109, 115; waterways throughout, 102. See also South China
Jiangxi Province: forest fire risk in, 211n91; forest registration in, 51, 53–54; Hakka people of, 14, 61, 71, 73; as a “hotbed of litigation,” 91, 210n71; land surveys of, 13, 45, 47, 48, 173, 199n34, 204n41; logging in, 144; non-agrarian goods from, 65; in the range of China fir, 12; shipbuilding in, 110, 121, 130; during Song and Yuan dynasties, 200n45; taxation in, 67–69, 75, 200nn57,58; tree plantations in, 35, 95, 161; tributaries of the Yangzi in, 11
Jiangzhe, present-day Zhejiang and Fujian, 45, 200n45
Jiangzhou, Jiangxi, 103
Jianning, Fujian, 174
Jianzhou, Fujian, 104
Jin dynasty: conquest of North China, 15, 28–29, 38, 45, 101, 105, 121; defeat of Liao dynasty, 62; naval power, 117, 120, 122, 123, 125, 128; rise of Prince of Hailing, 122–23, 162; treaty with Southern Song, 42
Jingdezhen, Jiangxi, 70, 71–72, 106
Jingdong Circuit, present-day Shandong, 44, 213nn10,14
Jingxi Circuit, present-day Henan, 213n10
Jingzhou, Hubei, 111
Jinhua, Zhejiang, 207n30
Jiujiang, Jiangxi, 110, 111, 112, 175
Jixi County, Anhui, 172, 173fig., 198n21
Jurchen people. See Jin dynasty

Kaifeng: as Northern Song capital, 28, 38; shipbuilding at, 125; size of, 194n46; timber and coal supplies to, 29, 31, 100, 113, 114. See also Northern Song dynasty
Kaihua County, Zhejiang, 70
Ke Xian, 67
Khitan people, 15, 28, 62
Kim Panggyong, 126
Korea: forest surveys, 56; Hideyoshi’s campaign against, 154; imbalance of mountain forests and lowland farms in, 167–68; naval power, 119–20; oversight of forests in, 9, 10, 36, 90, 98; and Yuan dynasty, 125, 126–27, 128, 139, 219n75
Kublai Khan, 62, 125, 126–27, 128, 131–32, 162. See also Yuan dynasty

labor: bond servant, 84, 87, 88, 93, 206n76; and commodification of forest products, 25–27, 59; contractual, 84–85, 87, 88–89, 93, 94, 162, 164; itinerant, 34, 61, 89; for logging operations, 144–45, 148–51, 203n34; in shareholding arrangements, 83, 84, 85, 87–89; and silver tax, 69–70. See also corvée labor
land surveys: categories of land types in, 44, 46, 49, 52, 171, 199n33; and landownership, 41, 92; Li Chunnian’s method of, 37–38, 42–43, 49, 51, 56; and non-agrarian landscapes, 43–44; and tax evasion, 66–67; by Zhang Juzheng in 1581, 51, 82; Zhang Lü’s reform of, 38, 45–46. See also forest surveys; landowners
landowners: and Chinese property system, 40–41, 55; effect on open-access woodlands, 57, 59, 60, 75, 166; investment in tree plantations, 4–5, 35, 41–42, 56–57, 60; registration of properties, 42–43, 51, 81; in shareholding arrangements, 82–89, 92–93, 96, 209n54; theft from, 55, 87–88, 90, 92–93, 96. See also forest deeds; labor; land surveys
Leong, Sow-Theng, 167, 205n69
Li Chunnian, 37–38, 42–43, 49, 51, 56, 198n17
Li Gang, 121, 123
Li Xian, 31–32, 162, 217n19
Li Xianqing, 147, 148, 151, 155
Liang Fangzhong, 171
Liao dynasty, 15, 28, 62
Liaodong Peninsula, 119–20, 127
Liaoning Province, 70
Linjiang, Jiangxi, 70, 175
Liu Bing, 146
Liu Guangji, 68, 69
Liu Zongyuan, 26
Lo, Ju-pang, 218n49, 220n101
logging: bans and restrictions on, 30–31, 36, 217n20; and depletion of old-growth woodlands, 18, 26–27, 141, 142, 147, 155–59; for imperial construction, 16, 65, 140–42, 162; labor for, 89, 141, 144, 147–51, 222n3; for shipbuilding, 115, 127, 132; and shipping routes, 54, 97–98; and the spread of silviculture, 51, 113. See also environmental degradation; woodlands
Longjiang chuanchang zhi (Treatise on the Longjiang shipyards), 138
Longjiang customs station, Nanjing, 108, 115, 134–35, 143
Longjiang shipyards, Nanjing, 130, 131, 132, 133, 221n116
Lu Jie, 152
Luo Xianglin, 205n69

Macartney, George Macartney, Earl, 3–4
Macauley, Melissa, 210n71
Mahu, 144
Manchu people, 16
Manchuria, 75
Mao Zai, 155
Marks, Robert B., 10
McDermott, Joseph, 8, 85, 88, 172, 206nn76,1, 208nn35,40, 209n60
Mencius, 23
Meng Zhang, 159
merchants: connections with landowners, 16, 36, 84; geographical networks, 34; from Huizhou, 14, 71–72, 115; licensing of, 104; and naval expansion, 124, 135, 139; and official corruption, 103; shipping routes, 98, 135; the state’s reliance on, 155; taxes and tariffs on, 103, 112. See also timber trade
Min River, 132
Minde, 143–44
Ming dynasty: administration of forests, 16, 57, 224n51; brief history of, 15–16, 212n7, 217n5; Hongxi reign, 66, 223n38; Hongzhi reign, 146; Jiajing reign, 146, 147; land surveys of, 38, 52, 63, 66–67, 171–76, 200n46, 203n23; landownership regulations, 82; legal code, 49, 89–90, 93, 209n65; logging operations during, 140–42, 157, 158map, 222n3, 223n37; naval power, 118, 119, 120, 129–38; oversight of non-agrarian trades, 61, 71, 73–74; policy of self-sufficiency, 107, 114; retrenchment and reform during, 18, 132, 146; shareholding arrangements in, 83, 207n29; shipbuilding administration during, 134–35, 139; taxation in, 67–71, 107–13, 114, 133, 171; timber production during, 115; village system under, 63–65, 203n22; Wanli reign, 152; Xuande reign, 66, 110, 131, 132, 223n38; Zhengde reign, 146; Zhengtong reign, 132. See also Zhu Di (Yongle Emperor); Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Emperor)
Möngke Khan, 126
Mongol people. See Yuan dynasty
Mongolia, 75
Mozi, 23

Nan Zhili. See Southern Metropolitan Region
Nan’an, Jiangxi, 112, 174
Nanchang, Jiangxi, 127, 129, 175, 207n30
Nanjing: capture by Jin armies, 122; fuel supply of, 107; garrisons at, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135; household categories in, 202n20; land registers in, 46, 47, 199n33; shipbuilding at, 139; tariffs collected at, 109, 113, 114, 139, 215n74; timber trade in, 111, 115, 215n72; timber tributes to, 144
Nanling Mountains, 55, 56
nanmu: for palace construction, 143, 155; for shipbuilding, 135; state procurements of, 148, 156; as tribute timber, 142, 144, 146, 147. See also bamboo; China fir; pine
Nationalist Party, 207n30, 217n5
naval power, 117–39; important fronts in, 118–20; during Ming dynasty, 118, 119, 120, 129–38; during Song dynasty, 120–24; types of ships in, 120, 121, 124; during Yuan dynasty, 125–28. See also shipbuilding
New Comments on Guangdong, 55
New Treatise on Shipyard Administration (Chuanzheng xin shu), 138
Ni Dong, 138
Ningbo, Zhejiang, 34, 46, 52, 63, 121, 124, 199n33
Nongzheng quanshu (Xu Guangqi), 94
non-Han peoples: and Daoist techniques, 24; displacement of, 9; highland settlement, 12; and logging operations, 143, 144; payment of timber tributes, 141–42, 146–47, 151–52, 159; relation to the state, 13–14, 72–73; and Song dynasty, 28–29. See also Hakka people
North China: land surveys of, 42; maritime routes in, 119; relationship with South China, 12; rule by Jin dynasty, 45; species of timber in, 110; and Yuan dynasty, 105, 128, 203n23. See also Beijing; South China
North China Plain, 28, 29, 30, 36, 98
Northern Song dynasty: brief history, 15, 28; forest policy, 30–34; Huizong reign, 33; naval power, 121, 139; Shenzong reign, 32; timber supply, 29, 100–101, 114, 124; Zhenzong reign, 31; Zhezong reign, 32. See also Song dynasty; Southern Song dynasty
Nuremberg, 56

Offices of Zhou (Zhouli), 32
Ottoman Empire, 98
Outlaws of the Marsh (Shuihu Zhuan), 34
Ownby, David, 167

Pan Jian, 147
Pang Shangpeng, 68
Peng Shiqi, 147
pine: geographical range, 110, 114; grown in Korea and Europe, 56, 118; as a plantation tree, 4, 26, 94, 109; planting methods, 35, 55, 94, 211n83; producing pine tar, 70; susceptibility to fire, 95; taxation on, 215n71; used in palace construction, 155; used in shipbuilding, 118, 120, 139. See also bamboo; China fir; nanmu
Pingjiang, present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu, 217n20
Pingluan, Hebei, 128
Pingxiang County, Jiangxi, 54
Pomeranz, Kenneth, 166
porcelain industry, 71–72
Poyang Lake, 11, 12, 16, 53, 118, 129–30, 175
Precepts for Social Life (Yuan Cai), 21
Prussia, 36

Qian Qi, 68
Qianshan mountains, 128
Qiantang River, 101–2, 104, 106
Qimen County, Anhui, 81, 172, 173, 198n21, 199nn40,41, 206n1
Qin dynasty, 22, 23–24, 32, 142
Qing dynasty: control of Yangzi River basin, 212n7; forest surveys, 176; interpretation of timber tribute, 159; Kangxi reign, 155; logging operations during, 142, 155–56, 158fig.; pettifogging litigation during, 210n71; Qianlong reign, 155–56; shareholding arrangements in, 207n29; social unrest during, 166–67; taxation system, 63, 75, 113; Yongzheng reign, 155–56
Qingjiang, present-day Huai’an, Jiangsu, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135
Qinglin mountains, 31
Qiyang County, Hunan, 55
Quanzhou, Fujian, 34, 48, 70, 80, 124, 127, 200n46

Raozhou, Jiangxi, 52, 94, 173–74, 175, 200n45
Red Turban Rebellion, 15, 46, 81, 107, 129. See also Yuan dynasty
Retreat of the Elephants (Elvin), 10, 165–66
Rhine River, 212n7
Richardson, S. D., 94, 211n88
Roman law, 26
Rong Ni, 103
Ruizhou, Jiangxi, 174, 175, 204n41

Sacred Timber Depot (Shenmu Chang), 145, 146
Sanshan Gazetteer, 37
Sansi (State Finance Commission), 100, 101, 213n15
Schafer, Edwin H., 26–27
Schlesinger, Jonathan, 75
Schneewind, Sarah, 215n59
Scott, James C., 13, 163
Seeing Like a State (Scott), 163
Shaanxi Province, 67
shan, as term, 7, 9, 19
Shandong Province, 68, 126, 130, 200n58
Shang dynasty, 192n6
Shang Yang (Lord Shang), 23
Shanglin Park, 24, 193n15
Shanxi Province, 144, 145, 200n58
Shaoxing, Treaty of, 42
Shaoxing, Zhejiang, 52, 110
She Lu, 146
She people, 73, 76, 206n70
Shenmu Chang (Sacred Timber Depot), 145, 146
shipbuilding: ancillary materials for, 109, 130; different types of lumber for, 118, 120, 134–35; guides to administration of, 134, 138; labor for, 121, 123, 128, 130; and price inflation, 133–34; timber tariffs and, 103, 108, 162; of transport ships, 110, 121, 132, 218n22; types of ships built, 118, 136fig. See also naval power
Shipyard Administration (Chuanzheng), 138
Shu Yinglong, 155
Shuihu Zhuan (Outlaws of the Marsh), 34
Shuixi native office, present-day Bijie, Guizhou, 153
Sichuan Province: declining stands of old growth in, 142, 155, 156, 157, 159; imperial administration of logging in, 142–43, 225n80; land surveys of, 44; saying about mountains in, 151; timber for palace construction from, 145, 146, 147, 223n37; timber for shipbuilding from, 130, 132; timber tributes from, 143–44
Sima Guang, 32
Sima Qian, 193n17
Smith, Paul Jakov, 17
Sombart, Werner, 6
Song dynasty: baojia system, 203n23; brief history, 15; iron production during, 194n42; naval power, 117, 118, 119, 120–24, 125; oversight of forests and non-agrarian trades during, 16, 61, 62, 73; penal code of, 90; timber trade during, 109; wood crisis during, 4, 6, 9, 27–36, 38–39, 143. See also Northern Song dynasty; Southern Song dynasty
Songjiang, Jiangsu, 200n57
South China: land surveys of, 42; landholding practices and institutions, 39, 62–63; logging in, 141; relationship with North China, 12; shipbuilding in, 123, 131; timber trade in, 97, 101–2, 110, 124; topography, 11; tree plantations in, 70–71, 75, 94, 141, 160–61; Yuan control of, 45, 62–63, 105, 127, 128. See also Jiangnan region; North China
Southeast Asia, 15, 119, 128, 138
Southern Metropolitan Region: land surveys of, 47, 52; shipbuilding for, 132, 133; silviculture in, 95; taxation in, 68, 130, 200n58
Southern Song dynasty: control of Quanzhou, 80; corruption in, 103; establishment, 15, 28, 126; and forest management, 36, 38–39, 41, 57; Gaozong reign, 42; land surveys of, 42–44, 47, 50–51, 200n54; naval power, 121, 124, 139, 218n49; restrictions on Han logging, 104–5, 143; spread of litigation during, 91; timber trade during, 16, 102–5, 114, 115. See also Hangzhou
Spain, 98
State Finance Commission (Sansi), 100, 101, 213n15
Su Shi, 35, 55
Suzhou, Jiangsu, 106, 107, 121
Szonyi, Michael, 13

Taihe County, Jiangxi, 55
Taiping, present-day Wuhu, Anhui, 111
Taiping Rebellion, 17–18, 167, 226n6
Taiwan, 10, 217n5
Taizhou, Zhejiang, 44, 124
Tan family deed, 77–79, 84
Tang dynasty: fall, 28; landownership in, 41; legal code, 25–27, 59, 90; taxation during, 61, 99; wood policies of, 25–27, 32, 143
Tangut people, 15, 28, 31
tariff system, 97–116; attempt to eliminate, 107–8; conversion to cash payments, 104, 106; corruption in, 101, 103; exemptions from, 102–3, 104, 114; fractional, in-kind, 97–101, 109, 133; historical continuity, 113–16; method of calculation, 112; as oversight on wood markets, 162; revenues from, 106–7, 110–11; across varieties of wood, 109, 110, 114–15, 201n66, 215n71
taxation: and decimal accounting, 86–87, 209n52; evasion of, 66, 68, 82, 122; of forests, 7–8, 38–39, 51; in form of levies, 58–59, 61–62, 75; and land titles, 79–82; of non-agrarian goods, 61–63, 73–75, 213n10; on seagoing vessels, 121–22; in silver, 67–71, 164; “single whip method,” 60, 68–69, 75–76, 82; and village system, 64
Tibetan people, 31
timber production: commodification of trees in, 5, 21, 22, 30; competition from other crops, 17, 166; and processing, 113; role of highland peoples in, 13–14; shareholding arrangements and, 84, 85, 88, 89; stages of, 16, 17, 94; from wild growth, 26–27, 41, 113
timber trade: and cash economy, 17, 22, 30, 102; futures market in, 8; geographical expansion of, 7, 34–35, 36; linking North and South China, 12, 98; price inflation in, 133–34, 216n91; and salt trade, 112; standardization of grades and measures in, 13, 134–35; state involvement in, 32, 105; and state penetration of uplands, 13–14. See also commercial forestry; merchants; tariff system; taxation
Tingzhou, Fujian, 44, 73
Tongzhou, Beijing, 123, 145
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, 154
Treatise on the Longjiang Shipyards (Longjiang chuanchang zhi), 138
Treatise on Transport Ships (Caochuan zhi), 134, 138
tree planting: in clear-cut areas, 51, 55; and concepts of landownership, 41; effects on the environment, 11, 17, 22–23, 35, 60, 75, 95; grants of forest title and, 39–40, 50–51, 56; methods, 94, 211n88; ordered by Zhu Yuanzhang, 16; and reduction in open-access woodlands, 61, 164; as a response to wood crises, 22–23, 24, 27; role of upland peoples in, 72–73; rotation of plots in, 78, 209n60; spread of, 54–56, 57, 71, 159, 161; and timber production targets, 34; writings on, 21, 25, 26, 162. See also commercial forestry
Tuntian Qingli Si (Bureau of Military Farms), 108
Tushan mountains, 128

Venice, 6, 36, 98, 162–63, 201n73
Vietnam, 15, 128
von Glahn, Richard, 16–17, 215n59

Wagner, Donald B., 194n42
Wang Anshi, 32, 41, 62, 196n72
Wang Li, 111
Wang Shao, 31
Wang Yangming, 112
Wang Zhi, 112
Wang Zongmu, 68
Wanyan Liang (Prince of Hailing), 122–23, 162
Weihe, Shandong, 130, 132, 133, 134
Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 124
Wiens, Herold J., 165
Wŏnjong, King of Korea, 126–27
wood crises: Qin and Han responses to, 22, 23–24; Song dynasty, 4, 6, 9, 27–36, 38–39, 143
woodlands: conversion to forests, 51, 57, 75, 141, 160–61, 169; distinguished from forests, 160–61; “ecosystem services” provided by, 164; in land surveys, 40, 43, 44; legal views of, 25–26, 90; levies on products of, 61, 69; open access to, 13, 17, 37–38, 41, 59, 90, 95–96; social costs of loss of, 164, 166–67. See also commercial forestry; logging
Woodside, Alexander, 162
Wuhu, present-day Anhui, 111, 133
Wuyi Mountains, 71, 72
Wuyuan County, Jiangxi, 172, 173, 198n21, 199n41

Xi Xia dynasty, 15, 28, 31
Xia Shi, 67
Xiang River, 11
Xiangyang, Hubei, 125, 126
Xie An, 144, 223n37
Xihe Circuit, 31
Xihe Logging and Timber Purchase Bureau, 32, 217n19
Xin’an Gazetteer, 44
Xiuning County, Anhui, 172, 173fig., 206n1
Xu Guangqi, 94
Xu Jie, 68
Xuancheng, Anhui, 94

Yang Guozhen, 208n40
Yang Yao, 122
Yang Yinglong, 152–55
Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 103, 127
Yangzi River: compared to other major river basins, 212n7; forest registration along highlands of, 52; logging along, 18, 34, 141, 142, 144, 147; naval importance, 118–19, 121, 129, 217n5, 221n116; as northern border of South China, 11–12; shipbuilding along, 124, 132, 139; and supply of fuel to Nanjing, 107; taxation on households along, 109; timber trade along, 8, 13, 72, 108, 113, 119, 162; tree plantations along, 3, 8, 70, 159; tributaries of, 11
Yanshan, Jiangxi, 70
Yanyou Reorganization, 45, 172, 198n26, 214n53
Yanzhou, Zhejiang, 104
Ye Mengde, 35, 36
Yellow River, 29, 36, 196n82, 212n7
Yellow Sea, 119–20, 127–28
Yelü Chucai, 62, 201n10
Yi County, present-day Anhui, 172, 173fig., 198n21
Yibin County, Yunnan, 143
Yongle emperor. See Zhu Di (Yongle Emperor)
Yongning native office, present-day Ninglang County, Yunnan, 146
Yongshun native office, present-day Yongshun County, Hunan, 147, 152
Youyang native office, present-day Enshi, Hubei, 152, 153
Yuan Cai, 21, 23, 35, 36, 43, 83
Yuan dynasty: baojia system, 81, 199n40, 203n23; brief history of, 15, 81; conflicts, 114, 117; control of Fujian Province, 52, 80; fall of, 15, 46, 81, 107, 129; grain transport during, 129; and history of forest management, 57, 162–63; land surveys of, 38, 45–46, 48, 50, 172–73, 200n46, 203n23; naval power, 117–18, 119, 120, 125–28, 139, 219n61; and non-Han peoples, 141; oversight of non-agrarian trades, 61, 62, 63, 64, 71, 73–74, 202n11; size of empire, 212n7; taxation in, 45, 62, 63, 64, 105–7, 114; timber production during, 115
Yuanzhou, Jiangxi, 55, 70, 175table, 176
Yun-Gui Plateau, 56
Yunnan Province, 143, 148, 157

Zaiweibing, 153
Zhang Juzheng, 51, 69, 75, 82, 172, 173–74
Zhang Lü, 38, 45–46, 51
Zhang Shicheng, 129, 130
Zhang Xi, 125, 219n61
Zhang Xuan, 126
Zhangzhou, Fujian, 44, 73
Zhejiang Province: coastal pirates in, 129; forest fire risk in, 211n91; forest registration in, 51, 52; land surveys of, 44, 45, 47, 48; logging in, 121, 144; non-agrarian goods from, 65; in range of the China fir, 12; shipbuilding in, 110, 122, 128; taxation in, 68–69, 104, 130, 200nn57,58; tea production in, 70; topography, 11; tree plantations in, 35, 95, 159, 161. See also Hangzhou
Zhending, Hebei, 110
Zheng He expeditions, 15, 65, 66, 118, 131–32, 139, 221nn111,112. See also naval power; shipbuilding
Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, 46, 103, 106, 202n20, 214n51
Zhou Rudou, 68
Zhouli (Offices of Zhou), 32
Zhu Chun, 143, 144
Zhu De, 167
Zhu Di (Yongle Emperor): ascent to power, 109, 163; construction projects, 65–66, 141, 144, 147; logging under, 147, 151, 156, 162, 203n34, 222n3; naval expansion under, 130–32; retrenchment after the reign of, 18, 67, 82, 110, 145–46; tariffs under, 110. See also Ming dynasty
Zhu Qing, 126
Zhu Xi, 35
Zhu Ying, 67
Zhu Yuanzhang (Hongwu Emperor): in battle of Poyang Lake, 129–30, 220n84; defeat of Han Lin’er, 81; land surveys under, 46–47, 49–50, 172; orders for tree planting, 16, 162; policy of self-sufficiency, 107–8, 143, 215n59; successor, 109; village system, 63–65. See also Ming dynasty

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