Notes

INTRODUCTION

1. Liang Qichao, Yinbingshi wenji, part 1, 77–83. See also Pusey, China and Charles Darwin, 181–84.

2. Hsieh, Chinese Historiography; Xiao Yishan, Qingdai tongshi.

3. Esherick, Reform and Revolution; Hou Yijie, Ershi shiji chu.

4. Wright, Last Stand; Kwong, Mosaic of the Hundred Days.

5. Bland and Backhouse, China under the Empress Dowager, for an all-too-brief scholarly look at Cixi, see Chung, “Much Maligned Empress Dowager.”

6. Bays, China Enters; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power; J. Ch’en, Yuan Shihk’ai; MacKinnon, Power and Politics.

7. Mark Elliott, in almost identical terms, likewise speaks of the apparent disappearance of the Manchus by the end of the dynasty. See his “Resident Aliens,” xi.

8. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier; Des Forges, Hsi-liang; Crossley, Orphan Warriors.

9. Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 176; Ch’en Chieh-hsien, “Decline of the Manchu Language,” 144; Wright, Last Stand, 53.

10. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 1 (based on Lust’s translation, 58).

11. Wright, “Introduction,” 21–23.

1 / SEPARATE AND UNEQUAL

1. This definition of anti-Manchuism is much narrower and more specific than that offered by Kauko Laitinen, who defines it simply as “advocation (propaganda) by the Chinese in favour of overthrowing the Manchus” (Chinese Nationalism, 2).

2. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 5 (based on Lust’s translation, 65).

3. Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi, Xinhai Geming qianshinianjian, 1: 60.

4. Luo Baoshan, “Guanyu Zhang Binglin,” 56–62; Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi, Xinhai Geming qianshinianjian, 1: 94–99, 752–64. On Zhang Binglin’s anti-Manchuism, see Wong, Search for Modern Nationalism, esp. 61–64; and Laitinen, Chinese Nationalism.

5. On Zou Rong, see Lust’s introduction to Tsou, The Revolutionary Army.

6. See Young, “Problems of a Late Ch’ing Revolutionary.”

7. For a somewhat different analysis of the revolutionaries’ anti-Manchuism, based on articles in The People’s Journal after 1905, see Gasster, Chinese Intellectuals, chap. 3.

8. Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi, Xinhai Geming qianshinianjian, 1: 686.

9. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 22 (based on Lust’s translation, 80).

10. See Tao Jing-shen, “Barbarians or Northerners,” 84 n. 43.

11. Laitinen, Chinese Nationalism, 66, 83; on the term “Shina,” see Fogel, “Sino-Japanese Controversy.”

12. Chen Tianhua, Chen Tianhua ji, 107–8; Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 29–32.

13. Chen Tianhua, Chen Tianhua ji, 153.

14. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 17 (based on Lust’s translation, 76); Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi, Xinhai Geming qianshinianjian, 1: 754.

15. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 20–21 (based on Lust’s translation, 79).

16. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 9 (based on Lust’s translation, 68); Chen Tianhua, Chen Tianhua ji, 57, 117, 118.

17. Chen Tianhua, Chen Tianhua ji, 117; Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 8–9 (based on Lust’s translation, 68); Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi, Xinhai Geming qianshinianjian, 1: 684.

18. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 6–8 (based on Lust’s translation, 66–68); Chen Tianhua, Chen Tianhua ji, 118.

19. Liang Qichao, Yinbingshi wenji, part 5: 35.

20. Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 22 (based on Lust’s translation, 80).

21. The reputed source of the quote, leaving aside the issue of its authenticity, is in dispute. Liang Qichao, in Wuxu zhengbian ji (An account of the 1898 coup) as reprinted and abridged in Wuxu bianfa, 1: 290, attributes the quote to Gangyi; Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 19, to Cixi’s confidant Ronglu; and S. L. Tikhvinsky, according to Lust’s introduction to his translation of Tsou, The Revolutionary Army, 95 n. 121, to Yihuan (Prince Chun). See also Min Tu-ki, “Wuxu bianfa shiqi,” 383–84, who goes along with Liang.

22. Chen Tianhua, Chen Tianhua ji, 36; Zou Rong, Gemingjun, 5. My thanks to Weikun Cheng for his help in locating the Zou Rong citation.

23. Aixin Jueluo Zongkui, “Manzu jiusu,” 264; J. Lee and R. Eng, “Population and Family History,” 8. See also Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 499–501. I am grateful to Robert Eng for making his copy of Zongkui’s article available to me.

24. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 1a; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 24–25; Spence, Ts’ao Yin, 2–9; Chen Jiahua, “Baqi zhidu,” part 1.

25. Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 97; Lishi dang’an, 1989, no. 2: 51, 106.

26. Qingshigao, 130: 3880–89. See also Da-Qing huidian, 84: 3a-4b; 86: 17b.

27. Chen Jiahua, “Baqi zhidu,” part 1: 114.

28. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 3a-3b; Wang Zhonghan, “Qingdai Baqi,” part 1: 37–42; W. Wu, “Development and Decline,” 22 n. 68.

29. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 14–16, 33–34; Wang Zhonghan, “Guanyu Manzu,” 8–10; Chen Jiahua, “Baqi zhidu,” part 2: 118–19; Wu Zhichao, “Lüelun ‘Xin Manzhou.’”

30. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 169; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 39–40; Naquin and Rawski, Chinese Society, 116; J. Lee et al., “Last Emperors,” 363 n. 13; Telford and Finegan, “Qing Archival Materials,” 94–95.

31. Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 16–27, 41.

32. Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 964–65; Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 224; Shen Yunlong, “Zhangwo wan-Qing zhengbing,” 70; Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 9: 149–56.

33. Qingshigao, 470: 12, 799; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 387, 598.

34. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 16, 34–35; Chen Jiahua, “Baqi zhidu,” part 1: 114–15. On Xiliang, see Des Forges, Hsi-liang.

35. Pamela Crossley and Mark Elliott render Hanjun as “Chinese-martial” and “Hanmartial” respectively. Both terms strike me as awkward sounding and hardly more meaningful than the original Chinese.

36. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 35; Wang Zhonghan, “Qingdai Baqi,” part 2: 62–66; Chen Jiahua and Fu Kedong, “Baqi Hanjun”; Crossley, Manchus, 7.

37. Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 5: 98.

38. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 26; Wang Zhonghan, “Guanyu Manzu,” 14–16; Spence, Ts’ao Yin, 6–18; Manzu shehui lishi, 226.

39. Crossley, Manchus, 7.

40. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 1a; Manzu shehui lishi, 85; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 719, 720.

41. Da-Qing huidian, 86: 20b-21a; Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 92; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 718.

42. Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 172; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 600; Manzu shehui lishi, 84. The Chinese system, as seen for example at the Altar of Harvests (Shejitan) in Beijing, associated red with south, blue or blue-green with east, white with west, black with north, and yellow with the center. See Smith, China’s Cultural Heritage, 102; Beijing mingsheng, 152. The Mongol system, on the other hand, associated red with south, white with east, black with west, yellow with north, and blue with the center (Atwood, “National Questions,” 44).

43. Hu Jieqing and Shu Yi, “Ji Lao She.”

44. Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 172–73; Ma Xiedi, “Qianlun Qingdai zhufang,” 194.

45. Jin Qicong, “Jingqi de Manzu,” 1988, no. 3: 65; Rozman, Urban Networks, 292.

46. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 3a-4b; Manzu shehui lishi, 85; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 722.

47. Rozman, Urban Networks, 292.

48. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 90; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 726–27; Fu Kedong and Chen Jiahua, “Qingdai qianqi de zuoling,” 168.

49. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 90; Qin Guojing, “Qingdai de Baqi,” 15.

50. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 8b-9a; J. Lee and R. Eng, “Population and Family History,” 9–10; Telford and Finegan, “Qing Archival Materials,” 87–90; Manzu shehui lishi, 85.

51. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 12a-13a. See also Torbert, Ch’ing Imperial Household Department, 72–77.

52. Qingshigao, 130: 3887–89. Actually, when the bondservant companies, which are broken down by banners in The Draft History of the Qing, are added up, the total is 105. However, in this listing the Plain Blue Banner is credited with only six companies, even though it reportedly had 2,704 soldiers, for an average of 451 soldiers per company. By contrast, each of the other seven banners had between eleven and twenty-one companies, averaging 167 soldiers per company. Perhaps the Plain Blue Banner should have been credited instead with sixteen (not six) companies, which would bring its soldier-to-company ratio down to 169, which is comparable to that of the other banners. The adjusted total of bondservant companies would then be 115.

53. Wade, “Army of the Chinese Empire,” 254; Wang Zhonghan, “‘Guoyu qishe,’” 205; Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 425; Qingshigao, 130: 3889. The Draft History of the Qing arrived at its total by adding up the strength of all the specialized units except the Escorts, Infantry, and Light Cavalry (36,118), the bondservant companies (20,413), and the twenty-four banners (70,272), along with a detachment of forty-eight soldiers and three officers guarding the tomb of Yihuan. (These figures actually add up to 126,854, a discrepancy of 135.) It should be noted that the Draft History total includes the more than 20,000 members of the bondservant companies, which are not normally considered a part of the regular banners; if the bondservant companies are not counted, then the Draft History total for the Metropolitan Banners would be about 106,500. Its exclusion of the Light Cavalry and the Infantry, the two largest service branches, seems to be based on the premise that they overlap with the twenty-four banners.

54. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 4b.

55. Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 744–46.

56. Ma Xiedi, “Zhufang Baqi,” 19–21.

57. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 5b; 86: 7a; Hubei tongzhi, 64: 1a-2a. See also Pan Honggang, “Xinhai Geming,” 21. The Collected Statutes errs in crediting the Jingzhou garrison with only one brigade-general. Also The Collected Statutes, though reissued in 1899, does not (unlike the Hubei gazetteer) include the 1,560 soldiers who were added to the garrison in 1815, 1833, and 1861. According to the gazetteer, the garrison numbered 7,228 soldiers.

58. On Tieliang, see Zha Shijie, “Qingmo de Zongshedang,” 132; Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 8: 117–19.

59. Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 178–90, 204–9.

60. Zhang Yutian, “Wan-Qing qiying,” 56–60; Hangzhoufu zhi, 41: 12b-13a; Jiangningfu zhi, 3: 2a-3b.

61. On the establishment of the provincial garrisons and their distribution in China proper, see Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” chap. 2. See also Ding Yizhuang, Qingdai Baqi zhufang, 215–17. My thanks to Ding Yizhuang for sending me a copy of her book.

62. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 2a, 2b, 4b, 8a; 86: 4b-5a, 8a-8b; Ma Xiedi, “Zhufang Baqi,” 20; Wade, “Army of the Chinese Empire,” 314–18; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 569, 748, 893, 897, 898.

63. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 2a-3a, 4b-7a; 86: 5a-6a, 7b-8b; Ma Xiedi, “Zhufang Baqi,” 19–20; Fu Kedong, “Baqi shuishi,” 19–20; Wade, “Army of the Chinese Empire,” 323–29; Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 237–42. The total of 125 companies in Fengtian was arrived at by adding up the number of companies assigned to each garrison as listed in The Collected Statutes of the Great Qing. This, however, may be an undercount, as at least five garrisons—Tieling, Xingjing, Fushun, Niuzhuang, and Gaizhou, which together had 1,583 soldiers—were not credited with any company at all. Furthermore, the Xiongyue garrison, with 954 soldiers, was credited with only one company.

64. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 2a-3a, 5b-6a; 86: 7a-7b; Ma Xiedi, “Zhufang Baqi,” 20; Wade, “Army of the Chinese Empire,” 321–23.

65. Da-Qing huidian, 84: 2a-2b, 5b-6a; 86: 6a-7b; Ma Xiedi, “Zhufang Baqi,” 20; Wade, “Army of the Chinese Empire,” 318–21.

66. Wang Zhonghan, “‘Guoyu qishe,’” 205; Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 173–74; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 32; Ma Xiedi, “Zhufang Baqi,” 19; Ding Yizhuang, Qingdai Baqi zhufang, 2; Liu Fenghan, “Qingji Ziqiang Yundong,” 346; Elliott, “Bannerman and Townsman,” 40 n. 8.

67. Aixin Jueluo Zongkui, “Manzu jiusu,” 264; Da-Qing huidian, 84: 9a; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 732a; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 28.

68. China, Baqi Dutong Yamen Archives, juan 8, “Qiwu”; Fu Kedong and Chen Jiahua, “Qingdai qianqi de zuoling,” 168.

69. Manzu jianshi, 100; Wang Zonghan, “‘Guoyu qishe,’” 205.

70. Manzu shehui lishi, 35; Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 13–14; J. Lee and R. Eng, “Population and Family History,” 12.

71. Zheng Chuanshui, “Qingmo Manzu shehui,” 61. The authors of the 1959 field survey of the Manchus in Beijing greatly understate the numerical gap between banner soldiers and banner people in the late Qing when they assert that each soldier had only five dependents (Manzu shehui lishi, 85). Liu Fenghan is much closer to the mark. He estimates that by the mid-nineteenth century each banner soldier was responsible for the livelihood of “more than ten or even several tens of family members” (“Qingji Ziqiang Yundong,” 352).

72. SL/TZ, 144: 2b-3b; Wright, Last Stand, 53–54.

73. Evelyn Rawski, too, describes the status of what she calls “the conquest elite” as “separate and unequal” (“Reenvisioning the Qing,” 832).

74. Hua Li, “Cong qiren biancha baojia”; Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 6–7.

75. W. Wu, “Development and Decline,” 103–4; Wakeman, Great Enterprise, 468.

76. Ma Xiedi, “Baqi zhidu,” 32–33; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 31; Jin Qicong, Manzu de lishi, 23–24; China, Baqi Dutong Yamen Archives, no. 4, “Qiwu,” Shandong governor Zhang to the lieutenant-general of the Hanjun Bordered Red Banner, communication, GX 14/3/15.

77. Ding Yizhuang, Qingdai Baqi zhufang, 162–68; S. Chang, “Morphology of Walled Capitals,” 92. For a slightly different typology of Manchu cities, see Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 132–42.

78. Jin Qicong, “Jingqi de Manzu,” 1988, no. 3: 63–65; Wakeman, Great Enterprise, 477–79.

79. Ma Xiedi, “Qianlun Qingdai zhufang,” 194. On Suiyuan and Urumqi, see Gaubatz, Beyond the Great Wall, 66–68, 71–74. On Qingzhou, see S. Chang, “Morphology of Walled Capitals,” 92; Williamson, Journeys in North China, 1: 104. On Ningxia, see Huang Guangyun and Chen Jinming, “Ningxia minjun,” 500.

80. On Kaifeng, see map in Henan tongzhi, 2: 2b-3a. On Zhenjiang, see Elliott, “Bannerman and Townsman,” 37.

81. Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 133–39. On Jingzhou, see map at front of Jingzhoufu zhi. On Xi’an, see map in Shina shōbetsu zenshi, 7: 26. On Guangzhou, see Rhoads, “Merchant Associations,” 98. On Nanjing, see Jiangningfu zhi, 3: 1b-2b; Spence, God’s Chinese Son, 187. On Taiyuan, see Yangquxian zhi, 3: 2b-3a.

82. Wakeman, Great Enterprise, 477–79; Elliott, “Bannerman and Townsman,” 43; idem, “Resident Aliens,” 138–39.

83. Wakeman, Great Enterprise, 478 n. 158; Dai Xueji, Huhehaote jianshi, 59; Elliott, “Bannerman and Townsman,” 43.

84. Jin Qicong, “Jingqi de Manzu,” 1988, no. 3: 65; Beijing mingsheng, 154.

85. Ma Xiedi, “Qianlun Qingdai zhufang,” 196; Wakeman, Great Enterprise, 478 n. 158; Rozman, Urban Networks, 291–92. See also Williamson, Journeys in North China, 2: 322.

86. Wang Jun, “1908-nian Beijing,” 103; Neigeguanbao, XT 3/7/25 and 7/26, 539–41.

87. Rozman, Urban Networks, 292–93; Wang Jun, “1908-nian Beijing,” 103.

88. On Guangzhou, see Rhoads, “Merchant Associations,” 97. On Xi’an, see Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, 113. On Chengdu, see Kendall, Wayfarer in China, 174.

89. Li Jieren, Sishui weilan, 211–12, as translated (with slight modifications) by Hu Zhihui in Chinese Literature, Dec. 1981, 29; for a map of the Manchu City, see Chen Yishi and Wang Duanyu, “Qingdai Chengdu,” 78.

90. Chen Yishi and Wang Duanyu, “Qingdai Chengdu,” 72, 75.

91. Wakeman, Great Enterprise, 469–71; Ma Feng-ch’en, “Manchu-Chinese Social and Economic Conflicts,” 335–40.

92. Malone, History of the Peking Summer Palaces, 55–56; “Beijingshi Haidianqu Huoqiying,” 89; Manzu shehui lishi, 226, 232; J. Lee and R. Eng, “Population and Family History,” 8.

93. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 78–79, 183. See also Edmonds, Northern Frontiers, 56–70.

94. Hosie, Manchuria, 211; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 102; Edmonds, Northern Frontiers, 78–81; Zhao Zhongfu, “Qingdai Dongsansheng,” 299.

95. Fletcher, “Sino-Russian Relations,” 332–33.

96. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 103, 119.

97. Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 83–85; Ding Yizhuang, Qingdai Baqi zhufang, 215–17. See also Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 59–61; Wang Zhonghan, “Qingdai Baqi,” part 1: 42–45; Y. Yan, Flow of Gifts, 39.

98. Pan Honggang, “Xinhai Geming,” 27; Manzu shehui lishi, 199–200; Franck, Wandering in Northern China, 374. See also Wang Zongyou, Guangzhou Manzu, 80–81. My thanks to Harry Lamley for drawing my attention to Wang’s book and for making his copy of it available to me.

99. Manzu shehui lishi, 87; Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 7.

100. Chen Yishi and Wang Duanyu, “Qingdai Chengdu,” 74; Bodde and Morris, Law in Imperial China, 96, 97, 351–52.

101. Wang Dezhao, Qingdai keju zhidu, 33, 39, 51–52; Shang Yanliu, Qingdai keju kaoshi, 54, 105; Huang Guangliang, Qingdai keju zhidu, 150–52. On Duanfang and Natong, see Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 39, 52.

102. Shang Yanliu, Qingdai keju kaoshi, 202–10; R. Chu and Saywell, Career Patterns, 49. See also Crossley, “Manchu Education,” 351–52. On Fengshan, see Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 32.

103. Li Hong, “Qingdai bitieshi,” 91; Chen Wenshi, “Qingdai de bitieshi,” 69–72. On Fuqi, see Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 23. On Songshou, see Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 44: 1a.

104. On Ronglu, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 405; Liu Fenghan, Wuweijun, 23–31. On Zhao Erfeng, see Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 5: 98. On yinsheng, see Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 958.

105. MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 14–15; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 950; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 137A.

106. R. Chu and Saywell, Career Patterns, 49–50, 68.

107. Chen Wenshi, “Qingdai Manren,” 551–53.

108. Fairbank, “Manchu-Chinese Dyarchy,” 270; Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 115–16.

109. Kessler, “Ethnic Composition,” 493. See also Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 369.

110. Bartlett, Monarchs and Ministers, 35–41, 242, 374 n. 42. See also Sun, “Board of Revenue,” 177–79.

111. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 6, 43; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 131–35, 288, 290–92; Chen Wenshi, “Qingdai Manren,” 568, 570.

112. Li Hong, “Qingdai bitieshi”; Chen Wenshi, “Qingdai de bitieshi”; R. Chu and Saywell, Career Patterns, 52; Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 43.

113. Chen Wenshi, “Qingdai Manren,” 556–57; Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 145–46. See also Ning, “Li-fan Yuan,” 32–33.

114. Chen Wenshi, “Qingdai Manren,” 572–75.

115. Ibid., 552; Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 7–8; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 128–29.

116. Wei Xiumei, “Cong liang de . . . jiangjun dutong,” 194; idem, “Cong liang de . . . fudutong,” 396.

117. Kessler, “Ethnic Composition,” 509; Li Guoqi and Zhou Tiansheng, “Qingdai jiceng difangguan,” 302, 305. See also R. Chu and Saywell, Career Patterns, 38–39, 66.

118. Kessler, “Ethnic Composition,” 509; Li Guoqi and Zhou Tiansheng, “Qingdai jiceng difangguan,” 319.

119. Manzu shehui lishi, 87; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 979; Elliott, “Bannerman and Townsman,” 61–62 n. 120; Lui, Hanlin Academy, 109–10; Wei Xiumei, “Cong liang de . . . jiangjun dutong,” 224; idem, “Cong liang de . . . fudutong,” 427.

120. Kessler, “Ethnic Composition,” 502; Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 269.

121. Rhoads, “Self-Strengthening”; Wang Jiajian, Zhongguo jindai haijun, 216–21; Qian Shifu, Qingji xinshe zhiguan, 61.

122. Zheng Chuanshui, “Lun Qingchao de qixiang,” 77–78; Luo Bingmian, “Zongli Yamen,” 177; Guo Taifeng, “Baqi Lüying fengxiang,” 107.

123. Yi Baozhong, “Shilun Qingdai Manzu,” 29; Wang Zhonghan, “Qingdai qidi,” 133; Manzu shehui lishi, 206.

124. Zheng Chuanshui, “Xinhai Geming,” 34; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 37; Zhao Zhongfu, “Qingdai Dongsansheng,” 298–300.

125. Yang Shusen, Qingdai liutiaobian, 99; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 79; Manzu jianshi, 150; Yi Baozhong, “Shilun Qingdai Manzu,” 28; Li Guilian, Shen Jiaben, 111–12; Y. Yan, Flow of Gifts, 26. See also Zhao Zhongfu, “Qingdai Dongsansheng,” 293–94.

126. Ma Xiedi, “Baqi zhidu,” 32; Wang Zongyou, “Erbainianlai Guangzhou Manzu,” 250; China, Huiyi Zhengwuchu Archives, juan 137, Beishou, memorial, GX 34/8/9.

127. W. Wu, “Development and Decline,” chap. 6.

128. Ibid., chaps. 7–8; Zheng Chuanshui, “Lun Qingchao de qixiang,” 78–80. On the eventual outcome of one resettlement program, see Y. Yan, Flow of Gifts, 24.

129. Wang Zongyou, “Erbainianlai Guangzhou Manzu,” 252; Zheng Chuanshui, “Lun Qingchao de qixiang,” 79. See also Manzu shehui lishi, 89.

130. Lao She, Beneath the Red Banner, 13, 31–32, 38, 39, 89.

131. Wu Wo-yao, “Bannerman at the Teahouse.” See also Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 176–77.

132. Hosie, Three Years in Western China, 86–87; Kendall, Wayfarer in China, 174–75; Henry, Ling-nam, 46.

133. Muramatsu, “Banner Estates,” 12–13; Jin Qicong, Manzu de lishi, 23–25; J. Lee and R. Eng, “Population and Family History,” 12; Manzu shehui lishi, 92. For a conflicting view of the economic situation among the “frontier Manchus,” see Rigger, “Voices of Manchu Identity,” 199–201.

134. As translated by Oxnam, Ruling from Horseback, 36, but slightly modified.

135. For a fuller, and slightly different, discussion of the “Manchu Way,” see Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 403–47.

136. Zhang Jie, “Qingdai dongbei Manzu,” 31–32; Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 428–30; Zhang Guochang, “Manzu jiaoyu,” 57–58; Lei Fangsheng, “Jingzhou qixue,” 57.

137. Ch’en Chieh-hsien, “Decline of the Manchu Language,” 139–40; DFZZ 4, no. 5: “Junshi,” 33–34 (GX 33/5); Wang Zhonghan, “‘Guoyu qishe,’” 197.

138. Wu Yuanfeng and Zhao Zhiqiang, “Xibozu you Keerqin Mengguqi,” 66.

139. Ch’en Chieh-hsien, “Decline of the Manchu Language,” 139–41; Hao and Liu, “Importance of the Archival Palace Memorials,” 82; Manzu jianshi, 184–85; Li Lin, “Cong jiapu,” 64; Lao She, Beneath the Red Banner, 50.

140. Williamson, Journeys in North China, 2: 39; Hosie, Manchuria, 26; Ch’en Chiehhsien, “Decline of the Manchu Language,” 143; Su Jing, Qingji Tongwenguan, 14, 125; Yangwu yundong, 3: 510. On the earlier history of Manchu as a “security language in military affairs,” see Crossley and Rawski, “Profile of the Manchu Language,” 70–71.

141. Aixin Jueluo Yingsheng, “Tantan Manzuren de xingming,” 56–58. On the Suwan branch of the Gūwalgiya lineage, see Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 39–46.

142. Aixin Jueluo Yingsheng, “Tantan Manzuren de xingming,” 56–59; Liu Qinghua, “Manzu xingshi,” 69–70; Wang Huo, “Qingdai Baqi zhong Gaoliren,” 47–49. On Duanfang’s family name, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 780.

143. Spence, Ts’ao Yin, 18–27; Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo Minchu yangxue, 22–23, 69–72; Su Jing, Qingji Tongwenguan, 174–78.

144. Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 142.

145. Ch’en Chieh-hsien, “Sinification of Manchu Names,” 5–12; Aixin Jueluo Yingsheng, “Tantan Manzuren de xingming,” 59.

146. Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 142; Li Lin, “Cong jiapu,” 67. See also He Puying, “Manzu Tatalashi jiapu,” 49–50.

147. Zhang Qizhuo, Manzu zai Xiuyan, 142; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 248.

148. Wang Zhonghan, “Qingdai Baqi,” part 2: 60; Liu Qinghua, “Manzu xingshi,” 69; Ch’en Chieh-hsien, “Sinification of Manchu Names,” 12–13. On the Niohuru clan and the transformation of their surname into Lang, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 221; Jin Qicong, “Jingqi de Manzu,” 1989, no. 2: 68, 70.

149. Luo Bingmian, “Zongli Yamen,” 167; Rong Tiegeng, “Qingdai Beijing,” 36; Lei Fangsheng, “Jingzhou qixue,” 59; Zhang Jing’ai, “Manzu de qishe,” 72–73; Wang Dezhao, Qingdai keju zhidu, 52; Pan Honggang, “Xinhai Geming,” 23.

150. Elliott, “Resident Aliens,” 311–25; Da-Qing huidian, 87: 1a-1b; Zhang Jing’ai, “Manzu de qishe,” 72; Manzu shehui lishi, 34, 213; Jin Qicong, Manzu de lishi, 25; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 68.

151. Wang Zhonghan, “‘Guoyu qishe,’” 198, 201–2; Cheng Changfu et al., “Mulan weichang,” 27, 28; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 68. See also Menzies, Forest and Land Management, chap. 3.

152. Lao She, Beneath the Red Banner, 24.

153. Fay, Opium War, 342–44, 352–53; Zhang Yutian, “Wan-Qing qiying,” 56–58; Manzu shehui lishi, 192; Zou Shencheng, “Zhapu zhanyi”; Elliott, “Bannerman and Townsman,” 46–63; Waley, Opium War, 197–221; Jin Qicong, Manzu de lishi, 26.

154. Jen, Taiping Revolutionary Movement, 118, 371–72, 436, 442; Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 128–38; Zhang Yutian, “Wan-Qing qiying,” 59–60.

155. Zhang Yutian, “Wan Qing qiying,” 60–61; R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 116–17; Ma Xiedi, “Zhufang Baqi,” 23; Qingmo choubei lixian, 937.

156. Kuwabara, “Zhongguo bianfa shi”; Wakeman, Great Enterprise, 648–50; Struve, Southern Ming, 60–63; Ye Hao, “Cong‘changmao,’” 50; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 95; Kuhn, “Political Crime,” 88 n. 28; Naquin and Rawski, Chinese Society, 82. On the Turks, see Millward, “Beyond the Pass,” 271–75. My thanks to Don Sutton for the information about the Miao and to Robert Entenmann for making available to me two of his unpublished papers on the history of the queue. For a recent study of the queue, see Godley, “The End of the Queue.”

157. See, for example, the preface to Hu Yunyu, “Fa shi,” 449–50.

158. Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 83; Struve, Southern Ming, 63; Zhou Xibao, Zhongguo gudai fushi, 378–413; Garrett, Chinese Clothing, 11–14.

159. Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 83; Zhou Xibao, Zhongguo gudai fushi, 449–84; Garrett, Chinese Clothing, 31–32, 42–45, 65–74; Scott, Chinese Costume, 5.

160. Zheng Tianting, Tanweiji, 84–87; Huang Zhangjian, Wuxu bianfa shi, 365. My thanks to Huang Zhangjian for locating the Liu Zhenyu reference.

161. Vollmer, Decoding Dragons, 15–16; Garrett, Chinese Clothing, 76–79; Wang Yunying, “Shilun Qing ruguan qian,” 74.

162. Fairbank and Teng, “On the Types and Uses,” 45–54; Ch’en Chieh-hsien, “Decline of the Manchu Language,” 137, 141. See also Crossley and Rawski, “Profile of the Manchu Language,” 65–80, 91.

163. Lui, Hanlin Academy, 66–67; Crossley and Rawski, “Profile of the Manchu Language,” 84–85; Waley, Opium War, 12.

164. Aixin Jueluo Yingsheng, “Manyu he Hanyu”; Guan Jixin and Meng Xianren, “Manzu yu Shenyangyu, Beijingyu”; Wadley, “Altaic Influences.”

165. Scott, Chinese Costume, 29–33; Zhou Xibao, Zhongguo gudai fushi, 484–504; Garrett, Mandarin Squares, 30; and idem, Chinese Clothing, 56–61, 84–93.

166. Qingmo choubei lixian, 952; SL/XT, 30: 25b-26a.

167. Jin Qicong, Manzu de lishi, 35.

168. Qingmo choubei lixian, 952; Crossley, Manchus, 145; Cao Xueqin, Story of the Stone, 186, 203.

169. SL/GX, 412: 14a-15b. See also Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, 104.

170. Wuxu bianfa, 3: 181–83; Tang Zhijun, Wuxu bianfa renwu, 347–48. See also Pusey, China and Charles Darwin, 116–17.

171. Wuxu bianfa, 3: 181–83; Tang Zhijun, Wuxu bianfa renwu, 347–49, 688. See also Pusey, China and Charles Darwin, 116–17; Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 166–67.

172. Wuxu bianfa, 3: 200–201; Wang Ermin, “Duanfa yifu gaiyuan,” 60–62.

173. Huang Zhangjian’s comments on the paper by Wang Ermin, in Zhongguo jindai de weixin yundong, 88; Kwong, Mosaic of the Hundred Days, 192–94.

174. Wuxu bianfa, 2: 227–30, 237–40, 263–65.

175. Wuxu bianfa dang’an, 44–45. On Zhang Yuanji, see Tang Zhijun, Wuxu bianfa renwu, 245–51; Wu Fang, Renzhi de shanshui.

176. SL/GX, 425: 22a-22b. On Yuan Chang, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 945–48.

177. Lao She, Beneath the Red Banner, 58 (with slight modification); idem, Teahouse, 18.

178. See also Crossley, Manchus, 7–8.

179. Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 56.

2 / CIXI AND THE “PECULIAR INSTITUTION”

1. SL/GX, 427: 12a; 428: 6b, 7a; Tang Zhijun, Wuxu bianfa renwu, 248; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 947.

2. SL/GX, 430: 20b-21a.

3. Ibid., 432: 11b-12b; 444: 1a-1b; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 102–3; Liu Fenghan, Wuweijun, 67, 86–88, 335–45; idem, Yuan Shikai, 108.

4. Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 393–94; Bays, China Enters, 64–65. See also Chung, “Much Maligned Empress Dowager,” 190–96.

5. Headland, Court Life, 161–63.

6. Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 174–75; Malone, History of the Peking Summer Palaces, 208; Duiker, Cultures in Collision, 103, 116.

7. SSJY, 1900–1901: 272; Liu Fenghan, Wuweijun, 752–54.

8. Gan Haifeng, Lao She nianpu, 1–2; Tang Zhijun, Wuxu bianfa renwu, 349.

9. Tan, Boxer Catastrophe, 159–61; SSJY, 1900–1901: 237–38, 354, 363, 369; Shirokogoroff, Social Organization, 4.

10. SL/GX, 468: 3a-3b; SSJY, 1900–1901: 357, 395, 467. On Yinchang, see Su Jing, Qingji Tongwenguan, 171–72.

11. SL/GX, 470: 1b-2a; 477: 9b-11a; 488: 11b-12b; Tan, Boxer Catastrophe, 216–22.

12. Dai Xueji, Huhehaote jianshi, 75–79.

13. SL/GX, 477: 11a-11b.

14. Zaifeng, “Chun qinwang”; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 385.

15. Tan, Boxer Catastrophe, 236.

16. SL/GX, 476: 8a-10b.

17. SL/GX, 481: 4b-5a; Zhang Deze, Qingji guojia jiguan, 282.

18. SL/GX, 476: 8b-9a; 530: 4b; Wu Fang, Renzhi de shanshui, 82.

19. Morrison, Correspondence, 155–56; Bays, China Enters, 103.

20. Zhang Zhidong, Zhang Wenxiang gong, 53: 22a-24a; Bays, China Enters, 108.

21. Zhang Bingduo, Zhang Zhidong, 273.

22. Zhou Fu, Zhou Queshen gong, “Zougao,” 2: 41a.

23. Zhang Bingduo, Zhang Zhidong, 273.

24. SL/GX, 492: 9b.

25. Beijing nübao, GX 33/3/15, 2; NCH, 12 July 1907, 79–80; 30 May 1908, 545; DFZZ 2, no. 1: “Shiping,” 6 (GX 31/1). On Li Guojie, see Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 60.

26. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 140–41; Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, 960, 1057; idem, “Cong hang de . . . fudutong,” 427.

27. SL/GX, 553: 3b; 564: 18a-18b; Gongsun Hong, Feng Guozhang nianpu, 7; Manzu shehui lishi, 85.

28. Manzu jianshi, 150; Yi Baozhong, “Shilun Qingdai Manzu,” 28.

29. Manzu shehui lishi, 209; Manzu jianshi, 150–51.

30. R. Lee, Manchurian Frontier, 152–55; Beijing nübao, GX 33/3/23, 3.

31. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 282–84, 287–88; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 305.

32. Guangxu zhengyao, 31: 67a-69a.

33. Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, 487–97.

34. Qingmo choubei lixian, 597; Fu Zongmao, Qingdai junjichu, 184; Bartlett, Monarchs and Ministers, 144–48, 238, 373 n. 28.

35. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 22; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 380; China, Junjichu Lufu Zouzhe, “Nongmin yundong lei,” juan 1696, no. 10, Liu Tingchen, memorial, XT 3/9/8; Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 54–72. Rawski, The Last Emperors, takes no notice of this mid-Qing tradition.

36. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 47–50. On Shiduo, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 80; and “Qingmo bufen Baqi dutong,” 37.

37. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 72–98; idem, Qingji xinshe zhiguan, 1–13, 61.

38. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 50; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 385.

39. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 283; Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 99–104; idem, Qingji xinshe zhiguan, 30–32. On Zaizhen, see Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 9: 157–61. Contrary to Qian Shifu, Yulang (the senior vice-minister of police in 1905) was not then an imperial prince. The son of a second-rank prince, Yulang did not inherit his father’s princedom, on a descending scale, as a prince of the third rank, until the latter’s death in 1907; meanwhile, he was only a noble of the ninth rank. On Yulang, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 729; Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 653.

40. SL/GX, 532: 15a; DFZZ 2, no. 4: “Neiwu,” 62–63 (GX 31/4); Donghualu, 5684–85; 5699.

41. Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 175; Beijing nübao, GX 33/7/16; Manzu shehui lishi, 93.

42. DFZZ 1, no. 2: “Shiye,” 18 (GX 30/2); 1, no. 6: “Shiye,” 95 (GX 30/6); 2, no. 12: “Junshi,” 384 (GX 31/12); Zhou Fu, Zhou Queshen gong, “Zougao,” 2: 40b.

43. Duanfang, Duan Zhongmin gong, 4: 44a; 8: 55b; 11: 25a; DFZZ 2, no. 12: “Junshi,” 385 (GX 31/12); 4, no. 9: “Zazu,” 21 (GX 33/9); NCH, 20 Sept. 1907, 676; 18 Oct., 152; 1 Nov., 276.

44. DFZZ 1, no. 9: “Shiye,” 160 (GX 30/9); 3, no. 8: “Shiye,” 169 (GX 32/7); Duanfang, Duan Zhongmin gong, 7: 12a-12b; Zheng Chuanshui, “Lun Qingchao de qixiang,” 80.

45. Liu Fenghan, Wuweijun, 461–62; MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 129; Yuan Shikai, Yuan Shikai zouzhe, 319–20; DFZZ 2, no. 4: “Junshi,” 146–48 (GX 31/4); Wu Zhaoqing, “Yuan Shikai,” 105–6.

46. SL/GX, 507: 6b-7a; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 140–43.

47. Yuan Shikai, Yangshouyuan zouyi, 21: 4b-5a.

48. Zhongguo jindaishi cidian, 582; Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 793; Zha Shijie, “Qingmo de Zongshedang,” 132; MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 78; Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo Minchu yangxue, 48; Saishin Shina, 392.

49. SL/GX, 515: 5a; Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 289; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 166–67; Fung, Military Dimension, 36–38.

50. Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 793; Guo Tingyi, Jindai Zhongguo shishi, 1188; Gongsun Hong, Feng Guozhang nianpu, 6.

51. Yuan Shikai, Yangshouyuan zouyi, 21: 4b-5a; Fung, Military Dimension, 21–22; MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 100; Morrison, Correspondence, 202; DFZZ 1, no. 1: “Zazu,” 1 (GX 30/1).

52. SL/GX, 525: 8b; 532: 13b-14a; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 204–9; DFZZ 2, no. 8: “Zazu,” 59 (GX 31/8); 2, no. 12: “Junshi,” 386–87 (GX 31/12); Wen Gongzhi, Zuijin sanshinian, “Junshi,” 3–4; Guangxu zhengyao, 31: 69a-72b.

53. Fung, Military Dimension, 33; USDS, Numerical File, 2106/2–5, undated report, “The Chinese Army,” 170–73; Yuan, Yangshouyuan zouyi, 41: 2a-8a.

54. Fung, Military Dimension, 26; DFZZ 1, no. 12: “Junshi,” 452 (GX 30/12).

55. Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 1: 91; USDS, Numerical File, 1518/38–29, Rockhill to State, 7 Feb. 1907; Fung, Military Dimension, 33. On Cao Kun, see Minguo renwu zhuan, 1: 172. On Wang Tingzhen and He Zonglian, see Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 35–36, 196. On all three, see Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 5: 370–71, 442, 518–19.

56. Donghualu, 5429–32; Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 1: 91–92.

57. DFZZ 1, no. 1: “Zazu,” 1 (GX 30/1); China, Baqi Dutong Yamen Archives, “Jiaoyu,” file no. 698, communications from the Banner Duty Office to the Hanjun Bordered Red Banner, GX 29/7/—and from Tieliang to the lieutenant-general of the Hanjun Bordered Red Banner, GX 29/7/4.

58. Fung, Military Dimension, 63–66; DFZZ 1, no. 12: “Jiaoyu,” 274–79 (GX 30/12); 2, no. 6: “Jiaoyu,” 109–23 (GX 31/6); Guo Fengming, Qingmo Minchu lujun, 78–86.

59. SL/GX, 540: 8a; Donghualu, 5300–5301.

60. China, Baqi Dutong Yamen Archives, “Jiaoyu,” file no. 698, memorial from Office of Military Training and Board of War, GX 32/+4/1, enclosed in communication from Banner Duty Office to the Manchu Bordered Yellow Banner, GX 32/+4/—; DFZZ 2, no. 12: “Jiaoyu,” 321–32 (GX 31/12); 3, no. 6: “Zazu,” 32 (GX 32/5); SL/GX, 549: 13a-13b; 553: 3b; SL/XT, 28: 2a-2b; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 713a. On Feng’s background, see “Feng Guozhang zaoqi lüli.”

61. Fung, Military Dimension, 69–70; DFZZ 2, no. 12: “Jiaoyu,” 321–32 (GX 31/12); ZZGB, XT 1/9/4, 5–7.

62. DFZZ 1, no. 4: “Jiaoyu,” 97–101 (GX30/4); Shu Xincheng, Jindai Zhongguo liuxue, 56–64; Fung, Military Dimension, 71–72.

63. Shu Xincheng, Jindai Zhongguo liuxue, 63–64; Guo Fengming, Qingmo Minchu lujun, 72–73; DFZZ 2, no. 12: “Jiaoyu,” 348 (GX 31/12).

64. SL/GX, 483: 8a; 494: 13a-13b; 498: 8a; Han Yanlong and Su Yigong, Zhongguo jindai jingcha, 80–101; Hunt, “Forgotten Occupation,” 513–14; Morrison, Correspondence, 614.

65. Strand, Rickshaw Beijing, 69–70; DFZZ 1, no. 10: “Neiwu,” 135–36 (GX 30/10); 3, no. 8: “Junshi,” 134–35 (GX 32/7).

66. SL/GX, 498: 8a, 9a; Bai Jie, “Qingmo zhengtan,” 36–37. On Shanqi, see Aixin Jueluo jiazu, 3: 213–14; on his ancestry, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 280–81.

67. SL/GX, 524: 2a; 525: 8b; Shen Yunlong, Xu Shichang, 24. On Natong, see “Qing Waiwubu,” 42. On Yulang, see “Xunjingbu zhuyao guanyuan,” 63, 79.

68. Strand, Rickshaw Beijing, 67; Shen Yunlong, Xu Shichang, 24; Zhongyang jingguan xuexiao, 11, 17–20; Jansen, Japanese and Sun Yat-sen, 138; Han Yanlong and Su Yigong, Zhongguo jindai jingcha, 233–38; Wang Jiajian, Qingmo Minchu woguo jingcha, 28, 46, 242; “Youguan Chuandao Langsu.”

69. Jansen, Japanese and Sun Yat-sen, 138; Bai Jie, “Qingmo zhengtan,” 37; Shen Yunlong, Xu Shichang, 24; “Youguan Chuandao Langsu,” 67–68. See photograph in Reynolds, China, 1898–1912, 166, where Shanqi is misidentified as Yikuang.

70. Wang Jiajian, Qingmo Minchu woguo jingcha, 29, 242–43; Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo Minchu yangxue, 22–24; Subao, 12 June 1903, 1–2. On the Kōbun Institute, see Harrell, Sowing the Seeds, 34; Huang Fu-ch’ing, Chinese Students, 103–5.

71. Sang Bing, “Guimao yuanri,” 75–76; Yang Tianshi and Wang Xuezhuang, Ju-E yundong, 127–28; Chen Tianhua, Chen Tianhua ji, 157. See also Rankin, “Manchurian Crisis.”

72. Sang Bing, “Guimao yuanri,” 76; Zhang Pengyuan, Lixianpai, 320; Shen Yunlong, Xu Shichang, 24.

73. “Youguan Chuandao Langsu,” 69–70; Wang Jiajian, Qingmo Minchu woguo jingcha, 46; Zhongyang jingguan xuexiao, 20–23.

74. Han Yanlong and Su Yigong, Zhongguo jindai jingcha, 110–19.

75. Fung, Military Dimension, 34.

76. DFZZ 1, no. 4: “Junshi,” 183 (GX 30/4); Guangxu Zhengyao, 31: 1ob-11a; Fung, Military Dimension, 115. See also Su Yunfeng, “Hubei xinjun,” 373; Su, however, estimates that the garrison provided only 4 percent of the Hubei Standing Army in 1905.

77. DFZZ 1, no. 12: “Jiaoyu,” 275–76 (GX 30/12); 2, no. 6: “Jiaoyu,” 109–11 (GX 31/6); 4, no. 9: “Jiaoyu,” 204–7 (GX 33/9). On the Jingzhou school, see also Lei Fangsheng, “Jingzhou qixue,” 58–59; and Zhou Wuyi, “Lujun disan zhongxue,” 11.

78. DFZZ 1, no. 7: “Jiaoyu,” 159 (GX 30/7); Saishin Shina, 392–93; Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo Minchu yangxue, 8–9, 48–49.

79. DFZZ 1, no. 4: “Jiaoyu,” 98 (GX 30/4); 2, no. 12: “Jiaoyu,” 348 (GX 31/12).

80. DFZZ 2, no. 1: “Zazu,” 10 (GX 31/1); 2, no. 10: “Neiwu,” 201 (GX 31/10); 3, no. 4: “Neiwu,” 105 (GX 32/4); Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo Minchu yangxue, 24.

81. SL/GX, 546: 11a-11b; Donghualu, 5431.

82. DFZZ 4, no. 5: “Junshi,” 28–30 (GX 33/5); 4, no. 7: “Junshi,” 63–65 (GX 33/7); Beijing nübao, GX 34/2/21, 2; 3/1, 4.

83. Morrison, Correspondence, 345.

84. SL/GX, 493: 9b; Zhuang Jifa, Jingshi Daxuetang, 138; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 717a; DFZZ 1, no. 10: “Jiaoyu,” 235 (GX 30/10); Beijing nübao, GX 31/10/25, 3.

85. DFZZ 2, no. 6: “Jiaoyu,” 157 (GX 31/6); 3, no. 12: “Jiaoyu,” 369 (GX 32/11).

86. SL/GX, 493: 9b-l0a.

87. Duanfang, Duan Zhongmin gong, 3: 27a-29a, 6oa-61b; DFZZ 1, no. 7: “Jiaoyu,” 157–59 (GX 30/7); Lei Fangsheng, “Jingzhou qixue,” 58.

88. DFZZ 3, no. 3: “Jiaoyu,” 55 (GX 32/3).

89. Biggerstaff, Earliest Modern Government Schools, 136–39; Zhuang Jifa, Jingshi Daxuetang, 28–29, 81–82, 138, 167–95; Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo Minchu yangxue, 69–139, 145–53.

90. Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo Minchu yangxue, 26, 136–39; DFZZ 2, no. 6: “Jiaoyu,” 101–3 (GX 31/6); Chou, “Frontier Studies,” 298.

91. Beijing nübao, GX 34/1/21, 1–2; 1/22, 2; 1/26, 2–3; 11/1, 1–2.

92. Duanfang, Duan Zhongmin gong, 7: 21b.

93. DFZZ 3, no. 5: “Jiaoyu,” 103–4 (GX 32/+4); Beijing nübao, GX 32/3/22, 3; Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 195; Zheng Yunshan et al., Hangzhou yu Xihu, 93–94.

94. Jinliang, Guang-Xuan xiaoji, 100; Beijing nübao, GX 33/3/24, 4; 3/29, 1–2; Shibao, 10 Nov. 1915, 2; Zheng Yunshan et al., Hangzhou yu Xihu, 94.

95. Beahan, “Feminism and Nationalism,” 408–10.

96. Beijing nübao, GX 31/10/18.

97. Ibid., GX 34/5/15,1–2; 5/16, 1–2.

98. Beahan, “Feminism and Nationalism,” 408–9; Beijing nübao, GX 34/10/27, 1.

99. Ding Shouhe, Xinhai Gemingshiqi, 5: 1–32; Boorman and Howard, Biographical Dictionary, 4: 56–58; Britton, Chinese Periodical Press, 117; Zhao Shu, “Xinhai Geming qianhou,” 16.

100. China, Baqi Dutong Yamen Archives, “Jiaoyu,” file no. 698, Banner Duty Office to the Manchu Bordered Red Banner, GX 34/5/—; Beijing nübao, GX 33/6/18, 3; DFZZ 4, no. 11: “Jiaoyu,” 256–57 (GX 33/11).

101. Lei Fangsheng, “Jingzhou qixue,” 58.

102. DFZZ 4, no. 9: “Jiaoyu,” 202–3 (GX33/9); 4, no. 11: “Jiaoyu,” 256–57 (GX 33/11); Wang Di, “Qingmo xinzheng,” 258.

103. DFZZ 4, no. 5: “Junshi,” 33–34 (GX 33/5).

104. Bays, China Enters, 127–28. As Bays points out, the text of this memorial has not been located.

105. Zhang Jian, “Seweng ziding nianpu,” 58; Zhang Yufa, Qingji de lixian tuanti, 311–12. On contacts between Zhang Jian and Tieliang, see S. Chu, Reformer in Modern China, 61, 65.

106. SL/GX 546: 8a, 15a. On Shaoying, see Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 188. On Zaize, see Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 9: 192–97.

107. XHGM, 2: 382–85, 432; Minguo renwu zhuan, 2: 46–49; Feng Ziyou, Geming yishi, 3: 197–204.

108. DFZZ 2, no. 12: “Zazu,” 77 (GX 31/12).

109. Wang Jiajian, Qingmo Minchu woguo jingcha, 35–38; Minguo renwu zhuan, 2: 182; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 339, 501.

110. SL/GX, 550: 16b-17b.

111. Hou Yijie, Ershi shiji chu, 59–60; Sun, “Chinese Constitutional Missions,” 253–57; Pan Chongxiong, “Duanfang yu yubei lixian,” 433–36.

112. Sun, “Chinese Constitutional Missions,” 260–62.

113. DFZZ, special issue, “Zouyi,” 4–7 (GX 32/12). (In the bound reprint edition, this issue is misplaced at the end of vol. 5, after the GX 34/12 issue.)

114. XHGM, 4: 39–47; Guo Tingyi, Jindai Zhongguo shishi, 1258. This important memorial, curiously, does not appear in the volume of Duanfang’s collected memorials.

115. SL/GX, 562: 4b, 8a-9b; Guo Tingyi, Jindai Zhongguo shishi, 1248, 1257; Sun, “Chinese Constitutional Missions,” 266.

116. SL/GX, 562: 9b-10a.

117. Li Jiannong, Zuijin sanshinian, 121; Zhang Yufa, Qingji de lixian tuanti, 313. See also Pan Chongxiong, “Duanfang yu yubei lixian,” 438–39.

118. Donghualu, 5559–61.

119. SL/GX, 564: 11b-14a.

120. SL/GX, 564: 14b-15a. On Shixu, see Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 9: 198–201.

121. Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 291–95.

122. SL/GX, 564: 15b-16a; Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 105. At least one source, Lao Li, Nucai xiaoshi, 14b, claims that Lu Chuanlin (at Personnel) was a Hanjun. This may explain why a number of accounts (e.g., Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 299) assert that nine, not eight, of the thirteen ministry heads were bannermen. However, other, more authoritative sources, including Qingshigao, 438: 12387, state that Lu Chuanlin was a native of Zhili and say nothing about his being a Hanjun.

123. Minbao, no. 10 (20 Dec. 1906): 57–65.

124. MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 81–82, 114; Li Zongyi, Yuan Shikai zhuan, 152.

125. Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 216; MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 82, 114–15.

126. ZZGB, XT 2/8/25, 8–9; DFZZ 4, no. 1: “Zazu,” 1 (GX 33/1).

127. Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 1: 92.

128. MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 82–89.

129. SL/GX, 571: 13a; China, Junjichu Xianzheng Zhuanti, no. 144, Yuan Shikai, memorandum enclosed in memorial, GX 33/6/19; Hou Yijie, Yuan Shikai, 93–94; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 218, 251–52; DFZZ 4, no. 11: “Zazu,” 27 (GX 33/11).

130. Hou Yijie, Yuan Shikai, 94; DFZZ 4, no. 11: “Zazu,” 28 (GX 33/11); SL/GX, 575: 18a; 581: 15b-16a; Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 1: 92–93; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 250; NCH, 8 Nov. 1907, 353; MacKinnon, Power and Politics, 116.

131. Minguo renwu zhuan, 1: 58–61; Rankin, Early Chinese Revolutionaries, 147–48, 164–71, 178–85; Wang Daorui, “Xinfaxian.”

132. Ding Shouhe, Xinhai Geming shiqi, 5: 8.

133. Qingshigao, 469: 12783–84.

134. Feng Ziyou, Geming yishi, 5: 85–87.

135. Beijing nübao, GX 33/6/13, 3.

136. FO 405/175, no. 80, Jordan to Grey, 20 Aug. 1907; no. 85, Jordan to Grey, 21 Aug.; USDS, Numerical File, 215/66–67, Rockhill to State, 9 Aug. 1907. On the lingering effect on Duanfang’s nerves of Wu Yue’s bombing, see Morrison, Correspondence, 624, 721; and Beijing nübao, GX 33/7/4, 5.

137. Beijing nübao, GX 33/7/10, 3; NCH, 23 Aug. 1907, 431.

138. SL/GX, 574: 8a-8b.

139. China, Junjichu Xianzheng Zhuanti, no. 144, Yuan Shikai, memorandum enclosed in memorial, GX 33/6/19; SL/GX, 575: 16a-17a. This long and important memorial does not appear in Yuan’s collected memorials (Yangshouyuan zouyi) or in the documentary collection Qingmo choubei lixian.

140. Qingmo choubei lixian, 915–18; Duanfang, Duan Zhongmin gong, 8: 37b-41a.

141. Zhang Zhidong, Zhang Wenxiang gong, 85: 35b-36b; Hu Jun, Zhang Wenxiang gong nianpu, 6: 5b-6a.

142. SL/GX, 575: 19a; Wu Tianren, Liang Jiean, 223–25.

143. SL/GX, 576: 1a-1b.

144. Qingmo choubei lixian, 257.

145. For a slightly more detailed analysis of the various reform proposals, see Rhoads, “Assassination of Governor Enming,” 10–19.

146. Qingmo choubei lixian, 916, 919–21, 938.

147. Ibid., 916, 952, 954.

148. Ibid., 917, 921–22.

149. Ibid., 940–42.

150. Ibid., 257, 926–31, 948–49.

151. Ibid., 937–38.

152. Ibid., 943–44. On Xiong Xiling, see Boorman and Howard, Biographical Dictionary, 2: 108–10.

153. Qingmo choubei lixian, 939–40, 946–48.

154. DFZZ 2, no. 1: “Zazu,” 7 (GX 31/1); 3, no. 2: “Neiwu,” 79 (GX 32/2); 4, no. 7: “Neiwu,” 347–48 (GX 33/7); Morrison, Correspondence, 354; Beijing nübao, GX 32/3/29.

155. DFZZ 4, no. 7: “Sheshuo,” 117–19 (GX 33/7).

156. Beijing nübao, GX 33/7/14, 2.

157. Ding Shouhe, Xinhai Gemingshiqi, 2: 518–33; Datongbao, 1: 19 (GX 33/5/15); Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 411; Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 304, 382.

158. Datongbao, 1: 13–21 (GX 33/5/15).

159. Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 411–12; Ding Shouhe, Xinhai Geming shiqi, 2: 518–19; Zhang Yufa, Qingji de lixian tuanti, 370–73.

160. Datongbao, 1: 20 (GX 33/5/15).

161. Ibid., 5: 4–5 (GX 33/11/28).

162. Ibid., 1: 76, 90 (GX 33/5/15).

163. Ibid., 1: 19, 97–99 (GX 33/5/15); 5: 7–9 (GX 33/n/28).

164. Ibid., 1: 100 (GX 33/5/15).

165. Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 435–59.

166. Datongbao, 1: 55 (GX 33/5/15); 5: 1–3 (GX 33/11/28). On Qianlong’s self-image as ruler of a multiethnic empire, see Millward, “Beyond the Pass,” 268–71; Zhang Yuxin, “Qingdai qianqi ge minzu,” 35–37. My thanks to Evelyn Rawski for drawing my attention to Millward’s study.

167. Qian Shifu, Qingji xinshe zhiguan, 54.

168. Guo Tingyi, Jindai Zhongguo shishi, 1282, 1284, 1286, 1288. See also Bays, China Enters, 190–92.

169. Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, 60.

170. NCH, 30 Aug. 1907, 520.

171. SL/GX, 578: 4b-5b; 579: 2a.

172. DFZZ 4, no. 7: “Neiwu,” 347–52 (GX 33/7).

173. SL/GX, 577: 11b; 579: 14b-15a.

174. NCH, 18 Oct. 1907, 153; 22 Nov., 445; 20 Dec., 720.

175. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 106.

176. Ibid., 51.

3 / ZAIFENG AND THE “MANCHU ASCENDENCY”

1. SL/GX, 578: 7b; ZZGB, GX 33/10/28, 9–10; 34/6/29, 11–13; FO 405/182, no. 166, Jordan to Grey, 4 June 1908, summary of events for May 1908.

2. SL/GX, 578: 7b-8a; 581: 10b-11a; ZZGB, GX 33/12/18, 6–7.

3. ZZGB, GX 33/11/30, 10–11; 34/2/21, 12–14; 3/26, 6–8; 4/30, 12–13; 8/6, 5–6; 8/22, 5–8; China, Huiyi Zhengwuchu Archives, juan 149, no. 1059, General Chuohabu, memorial, GX 34/2/21.

4. China, Huiyi Zhengwuchu Archives, juan 149, no. 1059, General Chuohabu, memorial, GX 34/2/21; ZZGB, GX 33/10/12, 10–12; 34/8/22, 5–8.

5. ZZGB, GX 33/10/10, 5–9; 12/22, 14–15.

6. Ibid., GX 33/12/19, 8–10; 12/22, 14–15.

7. Ibid., GX 33/11/1, 7–12; 34/4/24, 5–6; SL/GX, 581: 16b.

8. ZZGB, GX 33/10/28, 9–11; 11/26, 11–13; 12/26, 14–15; 34/4/30,12–13.

9. Ibid., GX 33/11/1, 7–12; 34/3/6, 5–7; 4/24, 5–6.

10. DFZZ 5, no. 10: “Jizai,” 115 (GX 34/10).

11. On the Commissioners for Revising and Codifying the Laws, see Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 174; Qian Shifu, Qingji xinshe zhiguan, 57.

12. Donghualu, 5794–95, 5813–14; Shen Jiaben, Shen Jiyi, “Wencun,” 1: 11a-14b; Li Guilian, Shen Jiaben, 110–13.

13. DFZZ 5, no. 2: “Neiwu,” 101–8,135 (GX 34/2); Donghualu, 5769–70; ZZGB, GX 33/11/7,19 (p. 579 in the bound reprint edition); Hou Yijie, “Yubei lixian,” 110. On the new court system, see Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, nos. 758–61.

14. Shibao, XT 2/8/2, 2.

15. Hu Jun, Zhang Wenxiang gong nianpu, 6: 8a-8b.

16. Zhang Yufa, Qingji de lixian tuanti, 348–56, 365–73.

17. Ibid., 350–52, 367; Zhang Kaiyuan, Xinhai Geming, 323. On Ruicheng (often mis-transliterated as “Ruizheng”), see Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 193; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 128.

18. Qingmo choubei lixian, 609–17; Hou Yijie, “Qingmo yubei lixian,” 103.

19. DFZZ 5, no. 1: “Jiaoyu,” 42–43 (GX 34/1); Datongbao, 7: 69–94 (GX 34/5/1). On Central Great Harmony Daily, see also Fang Hanqi, Zhongguo jindai baokan, 588.

20. Beijing nübao, GX 34/6/6, 3; 6/12, 2–3; Hou Yijie, “Qingmo yubei lixian,” 104.

21. SL/GX, 583: 5b-7b.

22. Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 811–12. On the bureau, see Zhang Deze, Qingdai guojia jiguan, 285–86.

23. NCH, 4 July 1908, 26; ZZGB, GX 34/6/15, 4–5.

24. DFZZ 5, no. 7: “Jizai,” 10–11 (GX 34/7); Li Shoukong, “Zhengwenshe,” 631.

25. Zhang Yufa, Qingji de lixian tuanti, 384–85; DFZZ 5, no. 7: “Jizai,” 2 (GX 34/7); 5, no. 8: “Jizai,” 35–38, 61–62 (GX 34/8). On Songyu, see DFZZ 5, no. 2: “Neiwu,” 141 (GX 34/2).

26. SL/GX, 594: 12b-13a; Li Shoukong, “Zhengwenshe,” 632; DFZZ 5, no. 10: “Jizai,” 95–96 (GX 34/10).

27. Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 811; Hou Yijie, “Yang Du er ti,” 237–44. For a biographical sketch of Yang Du, see Boorman and Howard, Biographical Dictionary, 4: 13–16.

28. SL/GX, 595: 1a-3a; ZZGB, GX 34/8/2, 5–18.

29. Hou Yijie, “Qingmo yubei lixian,” 106–7.

30. See, e.g., Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 733.

31. Hao and Liu, “Importance of the Archival Palace Memorials,” 88–89.

32. Zhu Jinfu and Zhou Wenquan, “Cong Qinggong yian.”

33. NCH, 19 Dec. 1908, 697. On Pulun and Puwei, see Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 378, 383. On Puzhong, see Li Zhiting, Aixin Jueluo jiazu, 2: 357.

34. Xiao Yishan, Qingdai tongshi, 2488–93; FO 405/183, no. 127, Jordon to Grey, 14 Nov. 1908; SL/GX, 597: 9a, 10a.

35. Morrison, Correspondence, 308–9.

36. Guo Tingyi, Jindai Zhongguo shishi, 1274; Tianjia, Man-Qing waishi, 70–71.

37. SL/GX, 573: 10b; 586: 1b.

38. Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 18; Zaitao, “Zaifeng yu Yuan Shikai,” 79.

39. SL/GX, 597: 10a-10b.

40. SL/XT, 3: 5b-11b; 25: 7a. See also Zairun, “Longyu yu Zaifeng,” 76–77.

41. FO 405/190, no. 58, Hillier to Addis, 5 Jan. 1909; Headland, Court Life, 171; USDS, Numerical File, 14911/40–52, Rockhill to State Department, 17 Nov. 1908.

42. SL/XT, 4: 24b; Zaitao, “Zaifeng yu Yuan Shikai,” 80–81. For more on Yuan’s dismissal, see Hou Yijie, Yuan Shikai, 101–3.

43. Li Zongyi, Yuan Shikai zhuan, 158.

44. Shen Yunlong, “Zhangwo wan-Qing zhengbing,” 74–76; SSJY, 1910: 36–37, 42–43; SL/XT, 3: 33a.

45. On Weng Tonghe, see SL/XT, 14: 8a; DFZZ 6, no. 7: “Jizai 1,” 331 (XT 1/6); Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 861. On Chen Baozhen, see Guofengbao 1, no. 3: 127–29 (XT 2/2/1).

46. Ding Shouhe, Xinhai Geming shiqi, 5: 8; Bays, China Enters, 59–61, 211–12; NCH, 16 Oct. 1909, 134; Li Jiannong, Zuijin sanshinian, 150–51; Morrison, Correspondence, 653–54.

47. SL/XT, 2: 16b-17b.

48. ZZGB, GX 34/6/26, 7; DFZZ 6, no. 6: “Jizai 1,” 298 (XT 1/5).

49. DFZZ 6, no. 7: “Jizai 1,” 351 (XT 1/6). On the electoral process in Guangdong, see Rhoads, China’s Republican Revolution, 155–58.

50. Zhang Pengyuan, Lixianpai, 248–52.

51. DFZZ 6, no. 7: “Jizai 1,” 351 (XT 1/6); China, Xianzheng Bianchaguan Archives, “Kaocha choubei xianzheng,” file 19.

52. DFZZ 6, no. 13: “Jizai 1,” 480, 482 (XT 1/12); FO 405/199, no. 26, annex 1, “Matters discussed in the Chekiang Provincial Assembly.”

53. Shibao, XT 1/11/1, 5; China, Xianzheng Bianchaguan Archives, “Kaocha choubei xianzheng,” file 28, undated memorial from Governor-General Yuan Shuxun and General Zengqi, enclosed in a communication from Governor-General Yuan, XT 1/12/3.

54. ZZGB, XT 1/7/11, 6; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 167; SL/XT, 34: 1a-3a; 35: 3b-4a; China, Junjichu Xianzheng Zhuanti, no. 448, Jinliang, petition, XT 3/4/3; Zhang Pengyuan, Lixianpai, 313–20.

55. SL/XT, 3: 17b-18b; ZZGB, GX 34/8/2, 13, 17.

56. Zhongyang datong ribao, GX 34/12/2, 3; 12/4, 3; 12/15, 3; 12/20, 3; STSB, XT 1/3/22, 4; 4/12, 4; 8/5, 7.

57. SL/XT, 4: 7a-7b.

58. DFZZ 6, no. 5: “Jizai 1,” 227–28 (XT 1/4); STSB, XT 1/3/3, 7.

59. Beijing nübao, GX 34/12/11, 1, 2; Zhao Shu, “Xinhai Geming qianhou,” 15.

60. Jinliang, Guang-Xuan xiaoji, 121–22; Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 193.

61. ZZGB, XT 1/3/9, 5–7; 12/13, 9; 2/4/5, 16; 12/29, 14–15; Jiang Xiangshun, “Jindai Shenyang Manzu,” 34.

62. ZZGB, XT 1/12/13, 8.

63. Jinliang, Guang-Xuan xiaoji, 143.

64. Ibid., 139–40; STSB, XT 2/5/25, 7.

65. ZZGB, XT 2/12/29, 15; 3/+6/13, 13; Shibao, XT 3/6/17, 2.

66. Zhongyang datong ribao, GX 34/12/9, 2.

67. Zhang Bofeng, Qingdai gedi, 59–61, 105–6, 151–52; ZZGB, XT 2/3/26, 12–13.

68. STSB, XT 2/4/3, 7; 6/17, 7; SL/XT, 36: 37a-38a; 37: 10a.

69. ZZGB, XT 1/+2/5, 6–10; SL/XT, 9: 6a-6b; DFZZ 6, no. 4: “Jizai 1,” 163 (XT 1/3).

70. SL/XT, 9: 6a-6b; DFZZ 6, no. 4: “Jizai 1,” 163 (XT 1/3).

71. SL/XT, 30: 25b-26a; 31: 1a. On aha as “slave,” see Norman, Concise Manchu-English Lexicon, 7.

72. SL/XT, 41: 17b-18a; ZZGB, XT 2/8/25, 8–9.

73. ZZGB, GX 34/8/2, 9.

74. SL/XT, 3: 7a-7b.

75. Zaitao, “Jinweijun zhi jianli,” 237; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 21; Zhang Guogan, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 23. According to Zaitao, his brother’s interest in the emperor’s military role was intensified when Prince Heinrich paid a return visit to China in April 1905. However, the German prince who visited China then was not Heinrich but Friedrich Leopold. See NCH, 14 April 1905, 61.

76. SL/XT, 14: 20h-21b; Bays, China Enters, 213; DFZZ 6, no. 7: “Jizai 1,” 332–33 (XT 1/6). On Wuzong, see Goodrich and Fang, Dictionary of Ming Biography, 311–12; R. Huang, 1587, 96–99.

77. SL/XT, 14: 21a, 25b; 15: 7b; Brunnert and Hagelstrom, Present Day Political Organization, no. 184a; ZZGB, XT 1/8/23, 4–8; Qian Shifu, Qingji xinshe zhiguan, 60; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 264–65; Zheng Huaiyi and Zhang Jianshe, Modai huangshu, 33–35; Beijing nübao, GX 34/12/18, 4. On the Japanese precedent, see Hackett, Yamagata Aritomo, 82–83; Presseisen, Before Aggression, 59–67.

78. NCH, 26 July 1907, 228; Beijing nübao, GX 34/5/16, 3; 5/26, 3.

79. SL/XT, 4: 3a.

80. Ibid., 4: 3a; 7: 34b-35a; 14: 21b; 38: 36b; Zhang Guogan, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 23; Qian Shifu, Qingji xinshe zhiguan, 60.

81. STSB, XT 1/+2/2, 7; China, Jinweijun Xunlianchu Archives, juan 1, memorial, n.d.; Zhang Guogan, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 23; Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 74, 315; Saishin Shina, 392–93. On Putong, see Morrison, Correspondence, 768–69; STSB, XT 3/8/17, 7; Xin Ping et al., Minguo shehui daguan, 35.

82. China, Jinweijun Xunlianchu Archives, juan 1, memorial and memorandum responding to an edict of GX 34/12/3; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 13–14, 20; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 294; Fung, Military Dimension, 21–22.

83. SL/XT, 4: 3a; STSB, GX 34/12/12, 2; China, Jinweijun Xunlianchu Archives, juan 1, memorial responding to an edict of GX 34/12/3; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 19.

84. China, Jinweijun Xunlianchu Archives, juan 1, memorial responding to an edict of GX 34/12/3; juan 3, “Ribaobiao” for XT 1/4; SL/XT, 16: 20a; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 19; STSB, XT 1/5/3, 7; 8/4, 7; 8/13, 7.

85. Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 19.

86. ZZGB, XT 2/9/30, 4–5; SL/XT, 41: 18b.

87. China, Jinweijun Xunlianchu Archives, juan 3, “Ribaobiao” for XT 1/7 and 1/8; Shibao, XT 2/5/13, 2.

88. China, Jinweijun Xunlianchu Archives, juan 3, “Ribaobiao,” XT 1/10/16, 10/25; United States, War College Division of the General Staff, 6283/4, monthly report of military events, 30 Nov. 1910.

89. SL/XT, 21: 21a; ZZGB, XT 1/9/4, 5–7.

90. SL/XT, 17: 29b-30a; 28: 2a-2b; Shibao, XT 2/1/29, 2; 2/8, 3; Neige guanbao, XT 3/7/29, 375–76. On Zairun, see Li Zhiting, Aixin Jueluo jiazu, 3: 171–72.

91. SL/XT, 21: 21a; Shibao, XT 2/5/13, 2; China, Jinweijun Xunlianchu Archives, juan 3, “Ribaobiao,” XT 1/10/16, 10/25; Saishin Shina, 397; Yun Baohui, “Xinhai Feng Guozhang,” 119.

92. SL/XT, 21: 34a; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 20; Liang Xuyi, “Liangbi zhuan,” 28–30; Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 35–36. On Zaitao’s military tour, see Guofengbao 1, no. 6: 67 (XT 2/3/1).

93. Zaitao, “Jinweijun zhi jianli,” 239; Zhang Guogan, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 23; Yun Baohui, “Xinhai Feng Guozhang,” 119; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 20, 22.

94. United States, War College Division of the General Staff, 6283/8, “Monthly Report of Military Events,” 20 April 1911; SL/XT, 59: 19a-19b; DFZZ 8, no. 8: “Zhongguo dashiji,” 13 (XT 3/8); STSB, XT 3/6/18, 7; 6/21, 7; 7/25, 7; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 20–23.

95. SL/XT, 7: 34b-35a; Bai Jie, “Qingmo zhengtan,” 38.

96. SL/XT, 14: 9a-12a, 21b-22a; 16: 29a. On Sa Zhenbing, see Tahara, Shinmatsu Minsho, 766; Zhongguo jindaishi cidian, 615–16.

97. DFZZ 6, no. 9: “Jishi,” 253–54 (XT 1/8); Lin Xianxin, “Zaixun Sa Zhenbing,” 846–49; SL/XT, 44: 3b-4b, 9a.

98. Lin Xianxin, “Zaixun Sa Zhenbing,” 846; SL/XT, 44: 9b-10a.

99. Zhang Xia et al., Qingmo haijun, 171–72, 850–52, 893, 898.

100. Yan Shouhua, “Hairong deng jian,” 706; Zhang Xia et al., Qingmo haijun, 444, 591–92, 597.

101. Lin Xianxin, “Zaixun Sa Zhenbing,” 849.

102. FO 405/190, no. 150, Jordan to Grey, 16 Mar. 1909; NCH, 21 Aug. 1909, 413–14; 28 Aug., 477–78; Bays, China Enters, 214; J. Ch’en, Yuan Shih-k’ai, 60.

103. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 51, 109. I have included the Ministry of the Navy in this analysis, even though it was not created until a few months later.

104. FO 405/191, no. 33, Jordan to Grey, 15 July 1909; Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 138–60.

105. DFZZ 6, no. 12: “Jizai 1,” 437 (XT 1/11); ZZGB, XT 1/10/14, 9–10.

106. FO 405/191, no. 153, Jordan to Grey, 26 Nov. 1909; STSB, XT 2/7/23, 7; Shibao, XT 2/1/8, 2; SL/XT, 53: 4b.

107. NCH, 7 Aug. 1909, 328; SL/XT, 31: 11b; 40: 7a; Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 8: 110.

108. Shibao, XT 1/11/28, 2; DFZZ 7, no. 4: “Wenjian 1,” 49–50 (XT 2/4).

109. Zhang Kaiyuan, Xinhai Geming, 332, 337; Bai Jie, “Qingmo zhengtan,” 38.

110. Zhu Lanting and Xu Fengchen, “Xiong Chengji”; Lü Jian, “Guanyu Xiong Chengji”; Feng Ziyou, Geming yishi, 5: 187–94; DFZZ, 7, no. 2: “Jizai 3,” 45–46 (XT 2/2). Feng’s account errs in identifying Xiong’s intended victim as Zaitao.

111. SSJY, 1910: 87–88; Feng Ziyou, Zhonghua minguo, 2: 230–35.

112. Feng Ziyou, Zhonghua minguo, 2: 235–38; SSJY, 1910: 88–89, 104–6; DFZZ 7, no. 3: “Jizai 1,” 47–48 (XT 2/3); Jin Xiangrui, “Wo shi zenma.”

113. Feng Ziyou, Zhonghua minguo, 2: 238–45. See also “Qingmo Wang Zhaoming.”

114. DFZZ 7, no. 3: “Jizai 1,” 47–48 (XT 2/3).

115. “Qingmo Wang Zhaoming,” 21; Shibao, XT 2/3/16, 2; NCH, 13 May 1910, 374.

116. Zhang Kaiyuan, Xinhai Geming, 317–40; Feng Ziyou, Geming yishi, 5: 251–54; 6: 50–51; Bai Jie, “Qingmo zhengtan,” 38. See also XHGM, 2: 290.

117. Feng Ziyou, Zhonghua minguo, 2: 246, 251–54; SSJY, 1910: 108–9.

118. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Jizai 3,” 359–61 (XT 2/11); Feng Ziyou, Gemingyishi, 2: 287–89; New York Times, 7 Oct. 1910, 1.

119. DFZZ 7, no. 12: “Jizai 1,” 169 (XT 2/12).

120. Farjenel, Through the Chinese Revolution, 21.

121. Li Shoukong, “Gesheng ziyiju lianhehui,” 321–38; Zhang Yufa, Qingji de lixian tuanti, 393–405; Shibao, XT 1/12/14, 2; DFZZ 7, no. 1: “Wenjian 1,” 17–20 (XT 2/1); STSB, XT 2/6/8, 4; 6/9, 4; SL/XT, 36: 28a-30a.

122. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Jizai 1,” 143–51 (XT 2/11); Shibao, XT 2/9/25, 2.

123. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Jizai 1,” 151–57 (XT 2/11); Des Forges, Hsi-liang, 171–72.

124. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Jizai 1,” 154–56 (XT 2/11).

125. SL/XT, 43: 2b-5b, 6b; 44: 9a-9b.

126. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Jizai 1,” 158–59 (XT 2/11); Li Shoukong, “Gesheng ziyiju lianhehui,” 346.

127. DFZZ 7, no. 12: “Jizai” 1, 178–80 (XT 2/12); SL/XT, 45: 11a-11b, 14b-16a; Guofengbao 1, no. 32: 109–10 (XT 2/11/21).

128. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Zhongguo dashiji buyi,” 85 (XT 2/11); 7, no. 12: “Zhongguo dashiji buyi,” 104–6 (XT 2/12); SL/XT, 43: 15b-16a.

129. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Zhongguo dashiji buyi,” 85–86 (XT 2/11); SL/XT, 43: 30b-31a.

130. SL/XT, 43: 34a; DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Zhongguo dashiji buyi,” 86 (XT 2/11).

131. Guofengbao 1, no. 30: 89–90 (XT 2/11/1); DFZZ 7, no. 12: “Jizai 1,” 170–74 (XT 2/12); NCH, 16 Dec. 1910, 660.

132. SL/XT, 45: 1a-2a; DFZZ 7, no. 12: “Jizai 1,” 174–77 (XT 2/12); FO 405/204, no. 89, Jordan to Grey, 31 Jan. 1911.

133. DFZZ 7, no. 11: “Jizai 3,” 326–27 (XT 2/11); Guofengbao 1, no. 32: 92–93 (XT 2/11/21); STSB, XT 2/12/4, 7.

134. DFZZ 7, no. 8: “Wenjian 1,” 98–100 (XT 2/8); NCH, 5 Aug. 1910, 309–10; Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, 186–88.

135. DFZZ 7, no. 3: “Wenjian 1,” 40–41 (XT 2/3); NCH, 18 Dec. 1909, 660.

136. Shibao, XT 2/3/4, 2; et seq.

137. NCH, 13 Nov. 1909, 364; FO 405/199, no. 162*, “Summary of the Peking press” for April 1910; Shibao, XT 2/3/17, 2; 7/3, 2.

138. Shibao, XT 2/8/9, 2; 9/7, 3.

139. Ibid., XT 2/7/27, 2.

140. Ibid., XT 2/8/21, 2; 8/24, 3; 9/2, 3; DFZZ 7, no. 9: “Jizai 3,” 261 (XT 2/9); ZZGB, XT 2/11/23, 7–8.

141. Shibao, XT 2/11/3, 2; 11/7, 2; 11/9, 1; 11/22, 1; 11/24, 5.

142. SL/XT, 45: 10b-11a.

143. Shibao, XT 2/11/26, 2; SL/XT, 45: 20a.

144. Shibao, XT 2/12/3, 2; 12/9, 2; 12/25, 1.

145. NCH, 20 Jan. 1911, 148–49, 158–59; Shibao, XT 2/12/6, 3; 12/12, 2.

146. Shibao, XT 2/12/17, 2; STSB, XT 2/12/25, 4.

147. DFZZ 8, no. 1: “Zhongguo dashiji,” 4 (XT 3/2). On the Eight Banners Association for Constitutional Government, see Guofengbao 1, no. 29: 81 (XT 2/10/21), and Shibao, XT 2/10/29, 1.

148. DFZZ 8, no. 4: “Zhongguo dashiji,” 2–3 (XT 3/5); NCH, 13 May 1911, 391, 436.

149. Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 110–11.

150. Shibao, XT 2/10/5, 2.

151. DFZZ 8, no. 1 (XT 3/2) (p. 19,069 in the Taiwan reprint edition); Shibao, XT 3/4/12, 1; 4/14, 1; Li Shoukong, “Gesheng ziyiju lianhehui,” 358; Zhang Jian, Seweng ziding nianpu, 66.

152. SSJY, 1911: 246–47.

153. DFZZ 8, no. 5: “Zhongguo dashiji,” 7–9 (XT 3/6).

154. Zhang Jian, Seweng ziding nianpu, 66.

155. SL/XT, 54: 23a-23b; NCH, 24 June 1911, 833; Shibao, XT 2/12/9, 2.

156. Qingmo choubei lixian, 577–79; Guofengbao 2, no. 14: 70–73 (XT 3/5/21); SL/XT, 55: 11b-12a.

157. Lingnan Banweng, “Wen Shengcai,” 699–703.

4 / THE 1911 REVOLUTION

1. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 3: 4a; DFZZ 8, no. 9: “Geming zhanshi ji,” 20 (XT 3/9).

2. Dutt, “First Week of Revolution,” 395–413; Esherick, Reform and Revolution, 178–92; SL/XT, 61: 24b-25a.

3. STSB, XT 3/8/22, 7; 8/23, 7; SL/XT, 61: 25a-25b.

4. SL/XT, 61: 34a-34b, 73b-75a; 62: 3a-4a, 8b-9b; Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 101–2; Hou Yijie, Yuan Shikai, 117–20.

5. Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 6: 543; Jinliang, Guang-Xuan xiaoji, 153.

6. SL/XT, 51: 10b-11a; 53: 4b-5a; 57: 20a; 61: 28b-29a, 34b-35a; STSB, XT 3/6/9, 7; Ding Shiyuan, “Meileng zhangjing,” 256–57; Luo Zhengwei, “Luanzhou geming,” 335–39; United States, War College Division of the General Staff, 6780–42, “Notes on the Chinese Revolution of 1911–12.”

7. NCH, 21 Oct. 1911, 141; SL/XT, 61: 28b, 70a; DFZZ 8, no. 9: “Geming zhanshi ji,” 21 (XT 3/9).

8. STSB, XT 3/8/26, 7; NCH, 21 Oct. 1911, 146, 152; SL/XT, 61: 69b-70b; Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 134; Ding Shiyuan, “Meileng zhangjing,” 258–59. Ding (1879–1945) was a high-ranking staff officer at the Ministry of the Army and traveled south with Yinchang; his first-hand account is quite informative and detailed, but strangely is often inaccurate as to dates. For example, he says Yinchang left Beijing on the 13th and arrived at Xinyang on the 15th.

9. Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 140b-144a.

10. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 3: 6a; NCH, 28 Oct. 1911, 217; DFZZ 8, no. 9: “Geming zhanshi ji,” 21 (XT 3/9); Chen Chunsheng, “Xinhai Geming haijun,” 697; Zhang Yibo, “Xinhai haijun,” 471–72.

11. See, e.g., Li Jiannong, Zuijin sanshinian, 191; Xiao Yishan, Qingdai tongshi, 2648; Tao Juyin, Beiyang junfa, 1: 77.

12. Hou Yijie, Yuan Shikai, 120–21. Although numerous other authors discuss this critical episode—Xu’s visit to Yuan and Yuan’s six demands—in almost identical terms, the credibility of this standard account is open to question for at least three reasons. First, most authors, including Hou Yijie, cite no source. Second, when authors do cite a source, the citation does not support the claim. For example, J. Ch’en (Yuan Shihk’ai, 86) refers to Tao Juyin (Beiyang junfa, 1: 76), but Tao’s own account is unsubstantiated; Ch’en also cites Zhang Guogan (Xinhai Geming, 106–10), but Zhang makes no reference to either Xu’s visit or Yuan’s demands. Other accounts (e.g., Wang Shounan, “Xinhai Wuchang,” 86) cite Li Lianfang (Xinhai Wuchang, 145b); Li does indeed quote Yuan’s six demands, but he neither dates them nor links them to any visit by Xu Shichang. Third, Zaitao (“Zaifeng yu Yuan Shikai,” 82) expresses doubts about “stories of Xu Shichang’s secretly going to Zhangde to negotiate terms [with Yuan Shikai]”; he categorically states that “at the time, I never heard of Xu’s going to Zhangde.” On the other hand, the contemporary press, not always a reliable source, does offer some independent confirmation for Xu’s visit and Yuan’s demands. Shibao (XT 3/8/27 [18 Oct. 1911], 2) reported that Xu, accompanied by an unidentified fourth-rank prince, visited Yuan at Zhangde to urge him not to turn down his appointment as governor-general; and STSB (XT 3/8/30 [21 Oct.], 7) carried an item saying that Yuan had submitted a secret eight-point memorial in which he, inter alia, asked for full power for himself.

13. SL/XT, 62: 14a-14b, 28a-28b, 38a-38b.

14. Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 153b-158a; Wang Shu’nan, “Wuhan zhanji,” 231–32; Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 139–45; Powell, Rise of Chinese Military Power, 323; SL/XT, 62: 55b-56b; Ding Shiyuan, “Meileng zhangjing,” 267.

15. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 3: 6b; Hou Yijie, Yuan Shikai, 122; Shen Yunlong, “Beiyang zhi ‘gou,’” 49; NCH, 4 Nov. 1911, 294; 11 Nov., 355, 357, 358; 25 Nov., 508, 511; DFZZ 8, no. 9: “Geming zhanshi ji,” 23–24 (XT 3/9); Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 148–56.

16. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 24: 3b; SL/XT, 63: 6b, 17a.

17. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 271–73; Zhang Jian, Seweng ziding nianpu, 70; Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 145b; Hou Yijie, Yuan Shikai, 120–21.

18. SSJY, 1911: 735–36, 754–58; STSB, XT 3/9/7, 7; 9/8, 7.

19. For conflicting views of Zhang Shaozeng’s motivations, see Dong Fangkui, “Lun ‘Luanzhou bingjian’”; and Du Chunhe, “Zhang Shaozeng.”

20. SSJY, 1911: 753–54, 803–5. The text of Zhang’s memorial here is strangely dated XT 3/9/13 (3 Nov.); an abbreviated version of the memorial, correctly dated, appears in Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 197–98.

21. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 198–99, trans. in Fung, Military Dimension, 218–19.

22. Du Chunhe, “Zhang Shaozeng,” 259. See also NCH, 4 Nov. 1911, 285.

23. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 202–3.

24. SL/XT, 62: 49a-50b, trans. in Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 160–61.

25. SL/XT, 62: 50b-53b, trans. in Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 162–64.

26. SL/XT, 62: 55a.

27. SSJY, 1911: 779.

28. Qingmo choubei lixian, 598–600; SL/XT, 63: 1a-2a, 5a; 64: 2b.

29. SL/XT, 63: 5b-6a.

30. SSJY, 1911: 807–8.

31. NCH, 4 Nov. 1911, 296; SSJY, 1911: 805–6; SL/XT, 63: 10b.

32. DFZZ 8, no. 9: “Zhongguo dashi ji,” 8–9 (XT 3/9), trans. in Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 169–70.

33. NCH, 11 Nov. 1911, 358; SL/XT, 63: 23a.

34. SSJY, 1911: 830–31; Du Chunhe, “Zhang Shaozeng,” 275.

35. STSB, XT 3/9/13, 7; 9/15, 7; 9/25, 5; SL/XT, 63: 27a; “Qingmo Wang Zhaoming,” 21–22.

36. STSB, XT 3/9/7, 7; 9/13, 7; 9/20, 2.

37. SL/XT, 63: 16a-18a, trans. in Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 171–73.

38. Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 77a-80a; Fung, Military Dimension, 205–6; He Juefei and Feng Tianyu, Xinhai Wuchang, 191; Wang Zuancheng, “Xinhai shouyi,” 29; Zhou Wuyi, “Lujun Disan Zhongxue,” 14.

39. See maps in Fung, Military Dimension, 228–29; and He Juefei and Feng Tianyu, Xinhai Wuchang, 201.

40. [Li] Jiannong, “Wuhan geming,” 171; Esherick, Reform and Revolution, 181–82; Dutt, “First Week of Revolution,” 399–400; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 73, 75; Zhou Wuyi, “Lujun Disan Zhongxue,” 15.

41. Shibao, XT 3/8/28, 3; 9/8, 3; Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 109b-110a; He Juefei and Feng Tianyu, Xinhai Wuchang, 212; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 85; Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 92; Xiong Bingkun, “Wuchang qiyi,” 94; [Li] Jiannong, “Wuhan geming,” 174. On the Manchus’ flat heads, see Crossley, Manchus, 20.

42. Yang Tingyuan, “Ji E Junzhengfu,” 47; STSB, XT 3/9/8, 4; Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 110a; He Juefei and Feng Tianyu, Xinhai Wuchang, 226–27; Cao Yabo, Wuchang geming, “Zhengbian,” 100–101. I have been unable to locate in American and British diplomatic sources confirmation of consular intervention on behalf of the Manchus.

43. Yang Tingyuan, “Ji E Junzhengfu,” 47–48; NCH, 21 Oct. 1911, 143; Cao Yabo, Wuchang geming, “Zhengbian,” 33; STSB, 9 April 1912, 4; Wang Zuancheng, “Xinhai shouyi,” 29; Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 113a-113b.

44. Li Lianfang, Xinhai Wuchang, 110a; Esherick, Reform and Revolution, 182.

45. Neige guanbao, XT 3/7/25, 539–40; FO 405/208, no. 65, Jordan to Grey, 29 Dec. 1911.

46. Zhu Xuwu and Dang Zixin, “Shaanxi Xinhai Geming,” 4–8; Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, chaps. 1–5; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 43: 5a.

47. Zhu Xuwu and Dang Zixin, “Shaanxi Xinhai Geming,” 8–10; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 4: 1a; 43: 5a; Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, 9; Shaanxi tongzhi gao, 44: 43b-44a.

48. Guo Xiaocheng, “Shaanxi guangfu,” 46; Guo Xiaoren, “Congrong jilüe,” 65.

49. Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, 42; Zhu Xuwu and Dang Zixin, “Shaanxi Xinhai Geming,” 10.

50. Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, 43–45; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 4: 2b, 3b.

51. Guo Xiaocheng, “Shaanxi guangfu,” 41–42; Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, 48; Guo Xiaoren, “Congrong jilüe,” 69.

52. Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, 32–33, 44, 48, 53–55; FO 405/208, no. 149, enclosure 2, A. G. Shorrock to Jordan, 1 Dec. 1911; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 43: 5b; NCH, 23 March 1912, 772; Zhu Xuwu and Dang Zixin, “Shaanxi Xinhai Geming,” 10, 12.

53. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 6: 1a-2b; Xue Dubi, “Taiyuan he Hedong,” 169–71; Yao Yijie, “Xinhai Taiyuan,” 266–68; NCH, 25 Nov. 1911, 518–20; Keyte, Passing of the Dragon, 174–75, 179.

54. Zhang Liying, “Zhenjiang guangfu,” 76–77; Wu Cifan, “Zhenjiang guangfu,” 263–67; Xu Chonghao, “Zhenjiang xinjun,” 247–50; Guo Xiaocheng, “Jiangsu guangfu,” 20; Shibao, XT 3/9/18, 3; 9/20, 4.

55. Zhang Liying, “Zhenjiang guangfu,” 78; Wu Cifan, “Zhenjiang guangfu,” 267–68; Lin Shuqing, “Zhenjun yuan-Ning,” 42, 44; Shibao, XT 3/9/26, 3; 10/5, 4.

56. Liu Tong, “Xinhai Fujian,” 460; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 44: 1a-3a; Wei Xiumei, Qingji zhiguan biao, “Renwulu,” 15, 204.

57. Shibao, XT 3/10/1, 3; Guo Xiaocheng, “Fujian guangfu,” 280; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 15: 1a; Liu Tong, “Xinhai Fujian,” 460.

58. Shibao, XT 3/10/6, 3; Guo Xiaocheng, “Fujian guangfu,” 280–81; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 15: 1a-1b; DFZZ 8, no. 9: “Geming zhanshi ji,” 18–19 (XT 3/9).

59. Shibao, XT 3/10/1, 3; 10/6, 3; Guo Xiaocheng, “Fujian guangfu,” 281; Liu Tong, “Xinhai Fujian,” 461–63; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 15: 1b-2b; Zheng Quan, “Fujian guangfu,” 318–19; China, Junjichu Lufu Zouzhe, “Nongmin yundong lei,” juan 1736, no. 2, Jingxu, memorial, XT 3/12/12; STSB, XT 3/12/19, 7; Gao Shiliang, “Fujiansheng geming,” 363, 365.

60. Shibao, XT 3/10/1, 3; STSB, 3/10/23, 4; 12/19, 7; Gao Shiliang, “Fujiansheng geming,” 365 n. 2; Liu Tong, “Xinhai Fujian,” 463; Guo Xiaocheng, “Fujian guangfu,” 281; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 15: 2a-2b; Zheng Quan, “Fujian guangfu,” 319.

61. Cai Hongyuan and Liu Xiaoning, “Xinhai Nanjing guangfu,” 165–66; Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 241.

62. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 13: 3b-4a; FO 405/205, no. 494, Jordan to Grey, 23 Nov. 1911; Fung, Military Dimension, 222.

63. Ma Yamin, “Nanjing guangfu,” 258.

64. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 13: 4a; Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 241–42; Fung, Military Dimension, 222.

65. Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 245; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 13: 5a.

66. Cai Hongyuan and Liu Xiaoning, “Xinhai Nanjing guangfu,” 167–72; Kent, Passing of the Manchus, 247–52; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 234–35; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 13: 6a-6b; Guo Xiaocheng, “Jiangsu guangfu,” 17.

67. Xu Chonghao, “Xinhai Zhenjun,” 40; Farjenel, Through the Chinese Revolution, 106; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 237; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 13: 6b; 45: 11b-12a; STSB, XT 3/10/16, 7; 11/4, 4; Shibao, XT 3/10/18, 4.

68. See, e.g., Fung, Military Dimension, 223.

69. China, Maritime Customs, Returns of Trade, 1911, part 2: 270.

70. Esherick, Reform and Revolution, 195–96; Li Yi, “Jing-Yi-Shi-He,” 253; Pan Honggang, “Xinhai Geming,” 23–24.

71. Bohai Shouchen, Xinhai Geming, 344; Li Yi, “Jing-Yi-Shi-He,” 262–67; STSB, XT 3/10/16, 2; 10/17, 2.

72. Li Yi, “Jing-Yi-Shi-He,” 254–57; China, Junjichu Lufu Zouzhe, “Nongmin yundong lei,” juan 1718, nos. 8–10, Liankui et al., memorials, XT 3/9/6, 9/28, and 10/7.

73. Li Yi, “Jing-Yi-Shi-He,” 257–59; China, Maritime Customs, Returns of Trade, 1911, part 2: 270; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 3: 13b; 42: 7b-9a; Bohai Shouchen, Xinhai Geming, 681–82.

74. DFZZ 8, no. 9: “Geming zhanshi ji,” 17–18 (XT 3/9); Guo Xiaocheng, “Zhejiang guangfu,” 135–36; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 14: 1a-2b; 44: 4a-5a; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 238–39; Xu Bingkun, “Hangzhou guangfu,” 165–66.

75. Lin Jiayou, “Xinhai Geming qianhou,” 210–17; Shu Zhongji, “Xinhai Geming shi”; Wang Zongyou, Guangzhou Manzu, 47–54; Da-Han Rexin Ren, “Guangdong duli,” 437, 438, 441, 442, 450.

76. SSJY, 1911: 1003–4. There exists a curious and suspect document dated 21 Nov., in which the Hanjun of the garrison plead with the Republicans that they be treated more leniently than the Manchus (Manren), that they be allowed to surrender even if other banner personnel do not. They claim that their ancestors had joined the Eight Banners unwillingly and that they now wish to reclaim their original Han status. See Shibao, 7 Jan. 1912, 4. The document, however, is probably spurious, because the Chengdu garrison was composed only of Manchu and Mongol banner members; it had no Hanjun.

77. Wei Yingtao, Sichuan baolu, 341–53; Qiu Yuanying, “Zhao Erfeng,” 127–33; SSJY, 1911: 1120–21.

78. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 2: 17a; Ma Xiedi, “Liu Xianzhi,” 46; Qian Anjing and Zhou Xiyin, “Xinhai Geming shiqi,” 118; Xiong Kewu et al., “Shu dang,” 179; Wang Youyu, “Da-Han Sichuan junzhengfu,” 73; Shibao, 29 Jan. 1912, 3.

79. Guanglu, Guanglu huiyilu, 2–9; Yang Fengchun, “Yili Xinhai Geming,” 510–17; Lin Jing, “Yili geming,” 429–31; Zhou Xuan, “Zhirui chulun,” 54; Shibao, 9 March 1912, 3.

80. China, Junjichu Lufu Zouzhe, “Nongmin yundong lei,” juan 1711, no. 3, Jixian et al., petition, XT 3/11/19; Bohai Shouchen, Xinhai Geming, 696–98; Hummel, Eminent Chinese, 780–81.

81. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 24: 3a; 42: 4b-5b, 6b-7a; 43: 6a, 9a; 44: 3a-3b; 44: 16b; 45: 4b, 8a; Bohai Shouchen, Xinhai Geming, 692–93; Yang Qingzhen, “Hairong, Haichou, Haichen,” 102; NCH, 11 Nov. 1911, 360; Esherick, Reform and Revolution, 195.

82. NCH, 4 Nov. 1911, 283; Shibao, XT 3/9/21, 4; 10/8, 3; 21 Jan. 1912, 4; Bohai Shouchen, Xinhai Geming, 303, 334; Yan Shouhua et al., “Changjiang jiandui,” 58.

83. Huang Guangyun and Chen Jinming, “Ningxia minjun,” 500–503; Rong Xiang, “Lüetan Xinhai Geming,” 237–42.

84. Shibao, XT 3/9/6 and 9/7, supplement.

85. SSJY, 1911: 907; NCH, 11 Nov. 1911, 366; SL/XT, 63: 38a.

86. SSJY, 1911: 936; NCH, 18 Nov. 1911, 437; SL/XT, 64: 6a.

87. Neige guanbao, XT 3/10/3, 95–96.

88. SL/XT, 66: 1a-2b; FO 405/208, no. 40, Jordan to Grey, 20 Dec. 1911.

89. SL/XT, 66: 8a-8b; Liang Xuyi, “Liangbi zhuan,” 31–32; STSB, XT 3/11/3, 7.

90. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 278–79; Guo Xiaocheng, “Yihe shimo,” 65–67; SSJY, 1911: 984.

91. Huang Zhongxing, Yang Du, 91–93; Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 538–42.

92. SSJY, 1911: 1028–29; SL/XT, 66: 5b.

93. Guo Xiaocheng, “Yihe shimo,” 65–66.

94. SL/XT, 63: 16a-18a, 41a-41b.

95. Li Huimin, “Wu Luzhen xunnan”; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 202–8; SSJY, 1911: 781–83, 851–66; XHGM, 6: 375; Shibao, XT 3/9/21, 2; NCH, 11 Nov. 1911, 361, 363, 366; DFZZ 8, no. 10: “Zhongguo dashi ji,” 1 (April 1912); for conflicting interpretations of Wu Luzhen’s political stance, see Dong Fangkui, “Lun ‘Luanzhou bingjian,’” and Wu Zhongya, “Wu Luzhen.”

96. FO 405/208, no. 123, Jordan to Grey, 13 Jan. 1912.

97. SL/XT, 64: 12b-13b; Qian Shifu, Qingji zhongyao zhiguan, 112. These figures are somewhat misleading. Because five of his appointees (e.g., Sa Zhenbing and Zhang Jian) were not in Beijing at the time, Yuan designated additional “acting” ministers. Three of the five acting ministers were Manchus: Shaoying, Shouxun, and Xiyan. Thus, in actuality, four (rather than one) of the ten ministers in Yuan’s original cabinet were Manchus.

98. NCH, 25 Nov. 1911, 509, 512; Williams, China Yesterday and To-day, 478–79; SL/XT, 65: 2b; 66: 5a; STSB, XT 3/11/1, 7.

99. Guo Xiaocheng, “Yihe shimo,” 66–67; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 279–80; NCH, 25 Nov. 1911, 511–15.

100. Morrison, Correspondence, 661–66; NCH, 25 Nov. 1911, 505; SSJY, 1911: 986.

101. Wu Tingfang, Wu xianshenggongdu, 1: 1a; Zhang Cunwu, “Wu Tingfang,” 102, 110–11; Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, 205–6.

102. Wu Tingfang, Wu xianshenggongdu, 1: 1a; NCH, 18 Nov. 1911, 445; Zhang Cunwu, “Wu Tingfang,” 102–4; Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, 203.

103. SL/XT, 66: 5b; Zhu Ying, “Tang Shaoyi,” 73–74; Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 542–43; SSJY, 1911: 1052, 1059–60. My thanks to Zhu Ying for making the Tang Shaoyi article available to me.

104. Liu Housheng, Zhang Jian zhuanji, 192; Sigel, “Revolution by Diplomacy,” 119, 120, 133; Zhang Yuesheng, “Zhuiji Baqi daibiao,” 427; SSJY, 1911: 1086.

105. Liu Housheng, Zhang Jian zhuanji, 182,192–95; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 292; Sigel, “Revolution by Diplomacy,” 131–32; Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, 211.

106. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 9–16.

107. FO 405/205, no. 575, Jordan to Grey, 22 Dec. 1911; no. 588, Jordan to Grey, 24 Dec.; no. 590, memorandum communicated by Chargé Yamaza, London, 26 Dec.; no. 595, Jordan to Grey, 26 Dec.; no. 597, Grey to Jordan, 26 Dec.; no. 613, Jordan to Grey, 28 Dec.

108. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 293.

109. Zhonghua Minguo shi, 2: 51–52; STSB, XT 3/11/10, 7; 11/11, 7; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 294; NCH, 30 Dec. 1911, 870; 6 Jan. 1912, 25; SL/XT, 67: 11b-12a.

110. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 16–30; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 294–95.

111. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 18, 21.

112. Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, 215–16; SSJY, 1912A: 18. On Sun’s election and inauguration, see Esherick, “Founding a Republic.”

113. STSB, XT 3/11/13, 7; 11/18, 2; 11/19, 2; Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 8: 123; Zha Shijie, “Qingmo de Zongshedang,” 126–30; Bai Jie, “Qingmo zhengtan,” 39.

114. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 296–97; Zhu Ying, “Tang Shaoyi,” 78–79; SSJY, 1912A: 20–21.

115. STSB, XT 3/11/18, 7; J. Ch’en, Yuan Shih-k’ai, 96; FO 405/208, no. 177, Jordan to Grey, 22 Jan. 1912.

116. Pomerantz-Zhang, Wu Tingfang, 219–20.

117. NCH, 13 Jan. 1912, 101; Shibao, 16 Jan. 1912, 2. This proposal does not appear in Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu.

118. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 297–300; FO 405/208, no. 67, Jordan to Grey, 14 Jan. 1912; Morrison, Correspondence, 700; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 26: 16a-18b.

119. SSJY, 1912A: 91–97.

120. STSB, XT 3/12/1, 7; 12/5, 7; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 26: 18b-19a; Morrison, Correspondence, 703.

121. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 72–74.

122. Ibid., 1: 72–80, 83–84.

123. Ibid., 1: 81–82.

124. STSB, 3/12/2, 7; 12/5, 7; Liang Xuyi, “Liangbi zhuan,” 32; Morrison, Correspondence, 703; NCH, 27 Jan. 1912, 231, 233.

125. STSB, XT 3/11/22, 2; 12/5, 7; Shibao, 25 Jan. 1912, 3; Liao Yuchun, “Xin Zhongguo,” 455; Morrison, Correspondence, 706–7.

126. STSB, XT 3/12/5, 7.

127. Yun Baohui, “Xinhai Feng Guozhang,” 119–20; Zhang Yilin, “Gu daili dazongtong,” 17a-17b; Shen Yunlong, “Beiyang zhi ‘gou,’” 49; Liao Yuchun, “Xin Zhongguo,” 450, 455, 457, 461; Jinliang, Guang-Xuan xiaoji, 153–54; Shibao, 25 Jan. 1912, 3.

128. STSB, 3/12/6, 7; Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 26: 19a-19b; Puwei, “Rangguo yuqian huiyi,” 111–12; Xiao Yishan, Qingdai tongshi, 2717–18; NCH, 27 Jan. 1912, 231–32. Puwei and Xiao Yishan both misdate this meeting; Puwei says it took place on the 17th; Xiao says the 20th.

129. Shang Binghe, Xinren chunqiu, 26: 19b; Puwei, “Rangguo yuqian huiyi,” 112–14; STSB, 3/12/5, 7; 12/6, 7. Puwei again errs in his dating of this meeting.

130. Wan Xiangchun and Deng Xianglin, “Xin-Yi geming”; Liang Xuyi, “Liangbi zhuan,” 32; Des Forges, Hsi-liang, 183–84; SL/XT, 69: 9a-9b; STSB, XT 3/12/20, 4; Shibao, 21 Feb. 1912, 5.

131. NCH, 3 Feb. 1912, 301.

132. SL/XT, 69: 13b-14a.

133. SL/XT, 69: 14b.

134. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 304–6; Li Shoukong, “Duan Qirui.”

135. STSB, XT 3/12/9, 7; Yang Du, Yang Du ji, 543–44.

136. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 87.

137. STSB, XT 3/12/10, 7; Shibao, 10 Feb. 1912, 2.

138. Liang Xuyi, “Liangbi zhuan,” 32; Chang Shun, “Maichen beizha”; SSJY, 1912A: 131–38; STSB, XT 3/12/20, 7; Morrison, Correspondence, 716.

139. Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 309, 311; STSB, XT 3/12/12, 7; 12/14, 7; 12/16, 7; 12/17, 7; 12/19, 7.

140. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 87–88.

141. Ibid., 1: 94–96; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 311–13.

142. SSJY, 1912A: 188–90; Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 96–98; Zhang Guogan, Xinhai Geming, 313–14. On the tael-dollar exchange rate (80 taels = 100 yuan), see Yang Xuechen and Zhou Yuanlian, Qingdai Baqi wanggong guizu, 367.

143. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 107–12; STSB, XT 3/12/20, 7; 12/23, 7.

144. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 113–14.

145. Ibid., 1: 117–18, 127–28; SSJY, 1912A: 214; Shibao, 11 Feb. 1912, 5.

146. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 127; Shibao, 13 Feb. 1912, 1–2.

147. STSB, XT 3/12/13, 7; 12/14, 7; 12/15, 7; 12/16, 7; Yun Baohui, “Xinhai Feng Guozhang,” 119–20; Zhang Yilin, “Gu daili dazongtong,” 17b; Liao Yuchun, “Xin Zhongguo,” 462.

148. Shibao, 5 Feb. 1912, 2; STSB, XT 3/12/20, 7; 12/21, 7; 12/24, 7; 12/27, 5.

149. SL/XT, 70: 13b-19a.

150. J. Ch’en, Yuan Shih-k’ai, 105; SSJY, 1912A: 241–42.

151. Rummel, China’s Bloody Century, 41.

152. Feng Ziyou, Geming yishi, 5: 254–55.

153. STSB, XT 3/9/21, 4; NCH, 28 Oct. 1911, 227; SSJY, 1912A: 224. Due to Qing censorship, the reference to the Manchus in the STSB report was deleted.

154. Morrison, Correspondence, 770. On the estimated size of the national revenue, see Robert Bredon in NCH, 2 March 1912, 554.

5 / COURT AND MANCHUS AFTER 1911

1. On the “liberal republic,” see Young, Presidency of Yuan Shih-k’ai, chap. 4.

2. J. Ch’en, Yuan Shih-k’ai, 106–7; NCH, 16 March 1912, 729; 25 Jan. 1913, 262; 22 Feb., 563; 1 March, 645; STSB, 7 April 1912, 7; 30 April, 7; 31 Aug., 5; 16 Oct., 7; 21 Dec., 7; Shibao, 25 April 1913, 4; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 389.

3. STSB, 24 Dec. 1912, 5; Shibao, 7 Jan. 1913, 3; 22 Feb., 3; 7 April, 2; 9 April, 2; Bredon, Peking, 84, 119, 134; Gamble, Peking, 61, 236–37; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 178, 305. See also Shi, “From Imperial Gardens.”

4. Wu Tingfang, Gonghe guanjian lu, 1: 72; Shibao, 11 Oct. 1913, 2–3; 24 Oct. 1915, 3; Xin Ping et al., Minguo shehui daguan, 952; Bredon, Peking, 89; Bonner, Wang Kuo-wei, 276 n. 33; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 169–72, 175, 300–302, 357.

5. SSJY, 1913A: 143, 174; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 80; Yang Xuechen and Zhou Yuanlian, Qingdai Baqi wanggong guizu, 376–77; Shibao, 10 March 1913, 2; 11 March, 2; Pujie, “Qinggong huiqin jianwen.”

6. Shibao, 11 March 1912, 2; 15 Sept., 2; 11 Oct. 1913, 2–3; SSJY, 1912B: 243–44; STSB, 13 Sept. 1912, 2, 7; NCH, 18 Oct. 1913, 184–85.

7. See, e.g., Shibao, 24 March 1912, 2; 26 May, 2; 14 Aug., 2; 24 Nov., 2; STSB, 13 June 1912, 7; 29 Sept., 5; 3 Dec., 5; 21 Dec., 5.

8. STSB, 9 April 1912, 7; 13 June, 7; 23 June, 7; 26 Oct., 7; 3 Dec., 5; Shibao, 20 April 1912, 2; NCH, 1 March 1913, 609; SSJY, 1913A: 500.

9. SSJY, 1913A: 501; 1913B: 637–38; 1915: 716; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 57; Shibao, 28 Jan. 1913, 2; 14 Nov., 2; 16 Dec., 2.

10. SSJY, 1913A: 500; Shibao, 17 Oct. 1912, 3; 9 Jan. 1913, 3; 11 Oct., 4; STSB, 3 April 1912, 7; 5 May, 2; NCH, 19 Oct. 1912, 178; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 22.

11. United States, War College Division of the General Staff, 6283–11, “Casual Military Notes,” 4 May 1912, enclosure no. 2; Shibao, 23 Feb. 1912, 2; 7 Jan. 1913, 3; 9 Jan., 3; 20 Oct., 2; STSB, 11 Sept. 1912, 5; 20 Oct., 5; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 22; Zaitao, “Jinweijun zhi jianli,” 241.

12. SSJY, 1912B: 239; STSB, 28 Sept. 1912, 7; 24 Nov., 7; Shibao, 27 June 1913, 2.

13. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 33–40; Jansen, Japanese and Sun Yat-sen, 137–40; Zha Shijie, “Qingmo de Zongshedang,” 132–39; Xianjun, “Su qinwang Shanqi.”

14. STSB, 18 April 1912, 2; 19 April, 2; 25 May, 5; 26 May, 5; 28 May, 5; Shibao, 20 April 1912, 3; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 3–8.

15. STSB, 4 April 1912, 7; 6 April, 7; 7 April, 7; 26 May, 7; Shibao, 7 April 1912, 2; DFZZ 8, no. 11: “Zhongguo dashiji,” 7 (May 1912).

16. SSJY, 1914A: 554–56, 588–89, 606, 704–10; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 383–84; Shibao, 28 April 1914, 2; 1 May, 4.

17. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 63–64, 384; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 98–100.

18. Shibao, 28 April 1914, 2; 1 May, 4; 15 Nov. 1915, 1; SSJY, 1914B: 719.

19. Shibao, 8 Feb. 1914, 2; 23 Feb., 5; 30 Nov., 4; 19 Feb. 1915, 2; 24 June, 5; 30 Aug., 6; 8 Sept., 4; 25 Dec., 5; Zaitao, “Jinweijun zhi jianli,” 240; Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 6: 370; Wu Zhaoqing, “Qingmo Jinweijun,” 22.

20. Shibao, 27 Aug. 1915, 2; 5 Sept., 2; 8 Sept., 4; 15 Sept., 4; 22 Sept., 3; 18 Dec., 2; 27 Dec., 2; J. Ch’en, Yuan Shih-k’ai, 174; Young, Presidency of Yuan Shih-k’ai, 215, 222; SSJY, 1915: 927; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 120–21.

21. Shibao, 13 Oct. 1915, 2–3; 21 Oct., 2; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 385.

22. Shibao, 26 Sept. 1915, 2; 29 Sept., 3; 15 Dec., 2; Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 9: 199; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 389.

23. Boorman and Howard, Biographical Dictionary, 2: 16–17.

24. SSJY, 1916: 636, 664.

25. SSJY, 1916: 513–21, 725; 1917: 40, 320; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 385–87; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 105.

26. SSJY, 1916: 597; Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 6: 543.

27. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 212, 223–25.

28. SSJY, 1917: 490–91; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 223–25.

29. SSJY, 1917: 555–56; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 246, 262, 267–68, 339–43.

30. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 327, 329; SSJY, 1917: 581–82; Sheridan, Chinese Warlord, 66 note; Feng Yuxiang, Wo de shenghuo, 510.

31. Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 94–96; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 227, 320, 326–30; Qingdai renwu zhuan’gao, 9: 200; Xin Ping et al., Minguo shehui daguan, 701–2.

32. Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 142; SSJY, 1918B: 373; 1921B: 627–28; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 120.

33. Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 114, 119; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 224–25, 300–302; Bonner, Wang Kuo-wei, 276 n. 33. Johnston, p. 300, reproduces the document in Chinese; there is, however, no reference to the agreement in Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai.

34. Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 114.

35. SSJY, 1917: 555, 733, 903; 1919A: 75; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 268; Zaitao, “Jinweijun zhi jianli,” 240–41; Zhang Bofeng and Li Zongyi, Beiyang junfa, 1: 12,104; 6: 370–71.

36. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 387–88; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 123, 141–42; Boorman and Howard, Biographical Dictionary, 1: 72; 3: 81; SSJY, 1922B: 161; 1924A: 839–40; Bonner, Wang Kuo-wei, 201–4; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 142–43.

37. Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 163–67, 231–32, 273–74, 337–40; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 113–21, 132–36, 141; SSJY, 1923B: 77.

38. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 390, 395–97; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 139–42; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 354–61, 366–67.

39. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 407–12; Feng Yuxiang, Wo de shenghuo, 509–10; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 144–49; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 389–91.

40. Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 148–69; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 410–11, 416–25.

41. Yang Xuechen and Zhou Yuanlian, Qingdai Baqi wanggongguizu, 405, 412.

42. Zaitao, “Jinweijun zhi jianli,” 241; SSJY, 1924B: 759.

43. Wu Xiangxiang, “Qingdi tuiwei,” 118–19; Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 413, 462; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 439–42.

44. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 414–15; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 405–6; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 157. For a recent study that is likewise critical of Puyi’s expulsion, see Yu Dahua, “‘Qingshi youdai tiaojian’ xinlun,” 172–76.

45. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 414–16, 420; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 153; Johnston, Twilight in the Forbidden City, 410–11; Feng Yuxiang, Wo de shenghuo, 510–11. On the “aftermath conference,” see Boorman and Howard, Biographical Dictionary, 3: 334–35.

46. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 425–27; Xin Ping et al., Minguo shehui daguan, 952; Shi, “From Imperial Gardens,” 238–39.

47. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 463–67, 546; Lo, K’ang Yu-wei, 248–49.

48. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 442–43.

49. Ibid., 443–49, 453–54; Crossley, Orphan Warriors, 210.

50. Hu Pingsheng, Minguo chuqi de fubipai, 449–57; Aisin-Gioro, From Emperor to Citizen, 194–96.

51. For an overview, see Cheng Weikun, “Minchu ‘jianbianre.’”

52. Shibao, XT 3/9/8, 3; 10/26, 4.

53. NCH, 16 Dec. 1911, 738; 23 Dec., 806; STSB, XT 3/12/3, 4.

54. Shibao, 1 Jan. 1912, 3; 2 Jan., 3; STSB, 17 July 1912, 7; 19 July, 7.

55. SSJY, 1912A: 312.