Notes
PREFACE
1A pseudonym.
2See, for example, Oakes, Tourism and Modernityin China; Donaldson, Small Works; Ian Johnson, “In China, ‘Once the Villages Are Gone, the Culture Is Gone,’” New York Times, February 1, 2014.
3Tobin, Securing China’s Northwest Frontier.
INTRODUCTION
1Interview, JN43112415. Throughout the text I cite interviews by code numbers that correspond to each respondent. Appendix A gives a complete listing of interviewees by their assigned code numbers and lists demographic data, including ethnicity, age, gender, profession, level of education, and interview location.
2Xibei refers to China’s northwest in both cultural and geographic terms. While definitions of what constitute the region differ from person to person, it usually includes the provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, and the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. Occasionally my respondents included Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and sometimes even Shaanxi Province. In this book, Xibei includes Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and—where my respondents did so—Ningxia.
3Interview, JN43112415
4Mark Abrahamson’s commonly accepted definition of enclaves describes them as “places in which members of an ethnic, religious, or racial group, sharing common traditions, support specialized shopping venues, such as ethnic groceries or religious goods stores. Many of these shops are owned by co-ethnics who reside in the same community. Enclaves also tend to be relatively self-contained institutionally; that is, there are usually institutions attached to the enclave that support people’s distinctive ways of life, such as schools that teach in their native language or homes for the aged that accommodate cultural dietary preferences” (Global Cities, 60). In “Creating a Sense of Place,” Mazumdar et al. note that these spaces produce “a strong tie between the lifestyle and the geographic space the residents occupy” (320).
5Harrell, “Introduction.”
6Côté, “Internal Migration and the Politics of Place”; Hillman, “Introduction”; Cliff, “Lucrative Chaos.”
7Dreyer, “China’s Vulnerability to Minority Separatism”; Kaltman, Under the Heel of the Dragon; Davis, “Uyghur Muslim Ethnic Separatism in Xinjiang, China”; Mackerras, “Tibetans, Uyghurs and Multinational ‘China’”; Leibold, “Ethnic Policy in China”; Kolås, “Degradation Discourse and Green Governmentality”; Côté, “The Enemies Within.”
8Interviews, JN17100615, JN21101215, JN40111415, JN54120715.
9Interview, JN54120715.
10Interview, JN55120815.
11McCarthy, Communist Multiculturalism, 14–15.
12On these rebellions, see Kim, Holy War in China; Atwill, The Chinese Sultanate; Lipman, Familiar Strangers.
13McCarthy, Communist Multiculturalism, 15.
14For examples from the international press, see Andrew Jacobs, “Light Government Touch Lets China’s Hui Practice Islam in the Open,” New York Times, February 1, 2016; “The Hui: China’s Other Muslims,” Economist, October 8, 2016.
15Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 97.
16Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 13. Gladney’s explanation of qingzhen is not universally accepted. On the meaning of qingzhen, particularly as it relates to halal standards, see also chapter 4.
17Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community.
18Jaschok and Shui, The History of Women’s Mosques in Chinese Islam.
19Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing.
20McCarthy, Communist Multiculturalism, 130–66.
21Erie, China and Islam.
22I borrow the phrase quiet politics from J. Paul Goode’s work on everyday nationalism in Russia. See especially Goode, “Nationalism in Quiet Times”; Goode, “Love for the Motherland.”
23Barth, “Introduction,” 7.
24Wimmer, Ethnic Boundary Making, 3.
25Citrin and Sears, “Balancing National and Ethnic Identities,” 147.
26Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 13.
27Brubaker, Ethnicity without Groups, 1–28.
28Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood”; Goode and Stroup, “Everyday Nationalism”; Bonikowski, “Nationalism in Settled Times”; Skey and Antonsich, Everyday Nationhood.
29In Chinese, Feng pu ci te ci zhenzhu zhi zunming, and in Arabic, bi-smillāhi r-rah. māni r-rahim.
30Field observations, Beijing, August 2015.
31George and Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences, 93.
32At the time this manuscript went to press in late February 2021, the 2010 national census provided the most recent publicly available comprehensive national statistics on ethnicity.
33The word minzu is a neologism first introduced to the Chinese language from the Japanese minzoku in the late nineteenth century. The CCP translates minzu as “ethnic nationality”; however, scholars contest the appropriateness of this term and, because of its ambiguity, leave it untranslated.
34For a list of Islamic populations in China, see Zhou and Ma, Development and Decline of Beijing’s Hui Muslim Community, 1.
35Gladney, “Islam in China,” 92–94.
36The Song dynasty polymath Shen Kuo’s tome Meng xi bitan (originally written by 1088) mentions a battle between the Song’s armies and a group of HuiHui occurring near the Yellow River. Likewise, the History of the Liao (Liao Shi), compiled by Toqtogha in 1344, draws on the records from the era of Yelü Yanxi, Emperor Tianzuo of the Liao dynasty (reigning approximately 1101–25), which recount the surrender of “the King of the HuiHui” to the general (and future Emperor Dezong of the Western Liao) Yelü Dashi in the third year of the Baoda era (approximately 1123–24). See Shen, Meng xi bitan, 36–37; Toqtogha, History of the Liao, 30:356; Pillsbury, “Muslim History in China,” 16; Ma, “A Primary Investigation of the History of the Hui People,” 89–91.
37Yang and Yu, Yisilan yu Zhongguo wenhua; Haw, “The Semu Ren in the Yuan Empire,” 40–44; Lipman, Familiar Strangers, 33.
38Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 15.
39Lipman, Familiar Strangers, xxiii.
40Schluessel, Land of Strangers, 14–44.
41Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 19; Lipman, Familiar Strangers, xviii.
42Schluesselxx, Land of Strangers, 38.
43Leibold, “Competing Narratives of Racial Unity in Republican China.”
44Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation, 25.
45Cieciura, “Ethnicity or Religion?,” 115; Ha, “Hui Muslims and Han Converts,” 331.
46Cieciura, “Ethnicity or Religion?,” 112–15.
47Eroglu Sager, “A Place under the Sun,” 3.
48Lee, “Muslims as ‘Hui’ in Late Imperial and Republican China,” 245–49.
49Lee, “Muslims as ‘Hui’ in Late Imperial and Republican China,” 249–51.
50Mullaney, “Critical Han Studies,” 10–11; Litzinger, Other Chinas, 4–8.
51Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation, 28–29.
52For further discussion of the CCP’s handling of the legacy of Ma Bufang, see Cooke, “Surviving State and Society in Northwest China.”
53Côté, “The Enemies Within,” 10.
54For further discussion of these events, see Lipman, Familiar Strangers; Kim, Holy War in China; Atwill, The Chinese Sultanate.
55Chen, “Islamic Modernism in China,” 117–24.
56Cieciura, “The Crescent and the Red Star,” 9.
57Gao, “The Call of the Oases”; Lin, Modern China’s Ethnic Frontiers, 113–24.
58Cieciura, “The Crescent and the Red Star,” 16.
59Cieciura, “The Crescent and the Red Star,” 19.
60Su, “Harmony and Martyrdom among China’s Hui Muslims.”
61Lipman, Familiar Strangers, 38.
62Erie and Carlson, “Introduction to ‘Islam in China/China in Islam.’”
6363 Lipman, Familiar Strangers, 25–57.
64Ben-Dor Benite, The Dao of Muhammad.
65Hillman, “The Rise of the Community in Rural China”; Hille, Horlemann, and Nietupski, Muslims in Amdo Tibetan Society.
66The Yihewani share a name with the global Ikhwan (commonly referred to as the “Muslim Brotherhood”), borrowed by the sect’s founder, Ma Wanfu, in 1888. However, Lipman asserts that shortly after its founding the Yihewani distanced themselves from the Saudi, Hanbali branch of the movement and “dropped much of [their] fundamentalist program, at least parts that impinged on the world of politics.” Thus, despite retaining an anti-Sufi outlook, by the early twentieth century the Yihewani “had become an ally of Chinese nationalism, a tool of an acculturating Muslim elite, and an important bridge between Muslim communities and the burgeoning Chinese nation-state” (Familiar Strangers, 205–9).
67Erie and Carlson, “Introduction to ‘Islam in China/China in Islam.’”
68Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing.
69Jiaozi translates to “the education of children.” Though not properly marked with street signs until 1934, the hutong’s name was passed down orally by Muslim residents as far back as the late Ming and would have referred to its position adjacent the Niu Jie Mosque and its teaching of Islamic education. See Li, “Zhuiyi Jiaozi Hutong,” 78.
70Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 22–29.
71Zang, “Ethnic Differences in Neighbourly Relations in Urban China,” 197.
72Cooke, “Surviving State and Society in Northwest China,” 414–16.
73Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 171–228.
74Field observations, August 2015.
75Aldrich and Waldinger, “Ethnicity and Entrepreneurship.”
76Cooke, “Surviving State and Society in Northwest China.”
77I borrow this phrase from John Comaroff and Jean Comaroff’s outstanding Ethncity, Inc.
78Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 173. Despite the fact that many of the owners of restaurants that produce the noodles come from Hualong Hui Autonomous County in Qinghai, these noodles have come to be associated with the city of Lanzhou in Gansu and are sometimes called “Lanzhou lamian.” Internationally, however, the characters for lamian are perhaps better known for their Japanese pronunciation, “ramen.”
79Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community, 153.
80Field observations, Jinan, October–December 2015.
81People’s Republic of China, National Bureau of Statistics, “Sixth National Population Census of the People’s Republic of China, 2010.”
82Mosques in these communities include Beijing’s Niu Jie Mosque, Jinan’s Great Southern Mosque, the Great Mosque at Najiahu, and Xining’s Dongguan Mosque.
83Lipman, “Ethnicity and Politics in Republican China.”
84Liang, Niu Jie; Zhou and Ma, Development and Decline of Beijing’s Hui Muslim Community.
85Wang, Zhou, and Fan, “Growth and Decline of Muslim Hui Enclaves in Beijing,” 113.
86Wang, Zhou, and Fan, “Growth and Decline of Muslim Hui Enclaves in Beijing,” 114.
87Haw, Beijing, 8.
88Wang, Zhou, and Fan, “Growth and Decline of Muslim Hui Enclaves in Beijing,” 116–19.
89Interviews, BJ0308115, BJ07090615, BJ14092415.
90Wang, Zhou, and Fan, “Growth and Decline of Muslim Hui Enclaves in Beijing,” 112.
91Interview, JN26101915.
92Jinan Municipal People’s Government, “Population of Jinan.”
93Boland-Crewe and Lea, The Territories of the People’s Republic of China, 178.
94A stela at the Great Southern Mosque claims that the mosque was built in 1295, replacing a mosque built two hundred years earlier in another part of town.
95Yang and Yu, Yisilan yu Zhongguo wenhua; Yi, Jinan Yisilan jiao lishi.
96People’s Republic of China, National Bureau of Statistics, “Sixth National Population Census of the People’s Republic of China, 2010.”
97Fairbank and Goldman, China, 25.
98Garnaut, “Pen of the Jahriyya.”
99Bulag, “Seeing Like a Minority,” 135.
100Perdue, China Marches West, 20.
101Perdue, China Marches West, 1–11.
102Ma, “Fanhui or Huifan?,” 2.
103Lipman, Familiar Strangers, 286.
104“Better City, Better Life” served as the motto for the 2010 Shanghai World Exposition.
105Pullan and Baillie, “Introduction,” 4–6.
106See Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen; Scott, Seeing Like a State; Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed; Callahan, “Making Myanmars”; Migdal, “The State in Society”; Chen and Gao, “Urbanization in China and the Coordinated Development Model.”
107Scott, Seeing Like a State, 79. On “legibility” Scott remarks, “Legibility implies a viewer whose place is central and whose vision is synoptic.”
108McGarry, “‘Demographic Engineering,’” 618–20.
109Meer, “Muslim Diasporas and Their Framing(s).”
110Starting in the 1980s, many Hui communities replaced older, “Chinesestyle” mosques with newly constructed buildings in the “Arabic” style. For more on this wave of “Arabization” of Hui mosque architecture, see Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 55, 155, 166–67; Fan, “‘Zai difanghua’ yu xiangzheng ziben”; Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 107–10.
111Dutton, Lo, and Wu, Beijing Time, 10.
112Hessler, Oracle Bones, 180.
113Shin, “Residential Redevelopment and Social Impacts in Beijing.”
114Pan, Welfare for Autocrats, 14–20.
115Wu, China’s Emerging Cities, 66–86.
116Field observations, Jinan, July 19–24, 2014.
117Tian and Wong, “Large Urban Redevelopment Projects and Sociospatial Stratification in Shanghai”; He and Wu, “Neighborhood Changes and Residential Differentiation in Shanghai.”
118He and Wu, “Neighborhood Changes and Residential Differentiation in Shanghai.”
119Meyer, The Last Days of Old Beijing; Hessler, Oracle Bones, 174–87; Osnos, “Can China Deliver the China Dream(s)?”
120Mertha, “From ‘Rustless Screws’ to ‘Nail Houses,’” 234.
121For more on the subject, see Smith Finley, “Now We Don’t Talk Anymore”; Loubes, “Urban Changes in Xinjiang”; Rachel Harris, “Bulldozing Mosques,” Guardian, April 7, 2019; Grose, “If You Don’t Know How, Just Learn,” 6–10.
122Miller, China’s Urban Billion.
123Lee, Against the Law; Loyalka, Eating Bitterness; Zhang, “Migrant Enclaves and Impacts of Redevelopment Policy in Chinese Cities.”
124Iredale and Guo, “Overview of Minority Migration,” 12–22.
125Iredale and Guo, “Overview of Minority Migration.”
126Côté, “Horizontal Inequalities and Sons of the Soil Conflict in China”; Côté, “Internal Migration and the Politics of Place.”
127Burgjin and Bilik, “Contemporary Mongolian Population Distribution, Migration, Cultural Change, and Identity.”
128Interview, YN105032316.
129Goode and Stroup, “Everyday Nationalism,” 724–30.
130Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood.”
131Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood,” 537–38.
132Fox and Miller-Idriss, “The ‘Here and Now’ of Everyday Nationhood,” 575.
133Brubaker et al., Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town, 381.
134Bernard, Research Methods in Anthropology, 347.
135Schmoller, “The Talking Dead.”
136Brubaker et al., Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town, 379. Indeed, as Brubaker et al. note, “ethnic nationalism emerges interactionally through the appropriation and transformation of discursive resources made available (in a non-ethnic frame) in the preceding turns of talk.”
137Dillon, The Practice of Questioning, 133–34.
138Kvale, InterViews, 29–31.
139Rubin and Rubin, Qualitative Interviewing, 13–14.
140Brubaker et al., Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town, 380–84.
141While critiques of the approach suggest that snowball sampling produces nonrandom, nonprobabilistic samples—especially in larger populations where the chain of referrals moves beyond the researcher’s initial respondent—it offers a number of distinct strengths. In employing local knowledge to direct researchers’ inquiries and relevant participants, the approach provides a sample of “natural interactional units” and provides researchers with strong insights about community networks. For this reason, it is a strong approach for studying sensitive subjects or hidden populations. For further reading, see Biernacki and Waldorf, “Snowball Sampling”; Heckathorn, “Comment”; Handcock and Gile, “Comment”; Bernard, Research Methods in Anthropology, 93.
1. “GOD IS A DRUG”
1Rachel Harris observes that while the depictions of smiling minorities reinforce narratives about their happiness at being included in the homeland, the demand that they smile imposes emotional labor costs on performers. Demands for smiles as a show of loyalty therefore estrange performers from their own authentic emotions. See Harris, Soundscapes of Uyghur Islam, 185–87.
2Field observations, Beijing, August 2015.
3Brady, “‘We Are All Part of the Same Family.’”
4Gladney, Dislocating China; Schein, Minority Rules.
5Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, “China’s Ethnic Policy and Common Prosperity and Development of All Ethnic Groups.”
6In Arabic, the phrase is lā ’ilāha ’illā -llāh.
7Madsen, “The Upsurge of Religion in China.”
8Translated in MacInnis, Religion in China Today, 10. .
9Field observations, Laozhai, December 2015.
10Brubaker et al. , Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town, 10–12.
11Pan, Welfare for Autocrats, 9–14, 45–47.
12Perry, “Chinese Conceptions of ‘Rights.’”
13Laliberté and Lanteigne, “The Issue of Challenges to the Legitimacy of CCP Rule,” 10.
14Feng, “The Dilemma of Stability Preservation in China,” 7.
15Laliberté and Lanteigne, “The Issue of Challenges to the Legitimacy of CCP Rule,” 2.
16Shue, “Legitimacy Crisis in China? ,” 60; Wang and Zhao, “China’s Peaceful Rise.”
17Pan, Welfare for Autocrats, 45–47.
18Gladney, Dislocating China, 9.
19Schein, Minority Rules, 81–83.
20Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation, 11–12, 45–64.
21Gladney, Dislocating China, 9.
22Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation, 12–14, 69–91.
23Schein, Minority Rules, 73.
24Heberer, China and Its National Minorities, 16; Cheung, Lee, and Nedilsky, Marginalization in China, 12.
25Gladney, Dislocating China, 20.
26Tobin, “Worrying about Ethnicity,” 66.
27Callahan, China Dreams, 107; Xi, Kexue yu Aiguo.
28Roberts, The War on the Uyghurs, 172–76.
29Tobin, “Worrying about Ethnicity,” 73.
30Though often translated as “Chinese nationality,” James Leibold’s history of the term notes that Zhonghua minzu, in both its historical and current usage, carries not only political but also racial and biological implications (Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism, 1–3).
31Barmé, Goldkorn, and Jaivin, Shared Destiny, xxxii.
32For more on this so-called second generation of ethnic policymakers, see Ma, “A New Perspective in Guiding Ethnic Relations in the Twenty-First Century”; Leibold, “Toward a Second Generation of Ethnic Policies?”; Tobin, “Worrying about Ethnicity,” 70–76.
33Schein, Minority Rules, 73.
34Mullaney, “Critical Han Studies”; Chen, Multicultural China in the Early Middle Ages; Gladney, “Representing Nationality in China”; Chow, “Imagining Boundaries of Blood”; Leiboldxx, Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism.
35Leibold, Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism, 92–96.
36Leibold, Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism, 170.
37Brady, “‘We Are All Part of the Same Family,’” 162.
38Brady, “‘We Are All Part of the Same Family,’” 162–70.
39Field observations, Lusha’er, July 2014. A note on transliteration of Tibetan place-names: I use the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription of Standard Tibetan developed by David Germano and Nicolas Tournade. Tibetan names were verified via the SHANTI Place Dictionary and the KMAPS project at the University of Virginia (http://places.kmaps.virginia.edu/).
40Field observations, Lanzhou, July 2014.
41Field observations, Xining, April 2016.
42Field observations, Xining, July 2014.
43Such is the finding of Gordon W. Allport’s “intergroup contact theory.” For further discussion, see Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, 260–81; Varshney, Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life.
44Bracic, Breaking the Exclusion Cycle.
45Mackerras, “Tibetans, Uyghurs and Multinational ‘China,’” 225–27.
46Feng, “The Dilemma of Stability Preservation in China,” 7–12.
47Hillman and Tuttle, Ethnic Conflict and Protest in Tibet and Xinjiang.
48Li and Ji, “Still ‘Familiar’ but No Longer ‘Strangers,’” 154; Su, “Meet China’s State-Approved Muslims”; Beech, “If China Is Anti-Islam, Why Are These Chinese Muslims Enjoying a Faith Revival?”; “The Hui: China’s Other Muslims,” Economist, October 8, 2016.
49Li and Ji, “Still ‘Familiar’ but No Longer ‘Strangers,’” 167.
50For further discussion of Islamic rebellions in the late Qing, see Lipman, “The Border World of Gansu”; Ma, “New Teachings and New Territories.”
51Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community, 87–88.
52Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 137–40; Su, “Harmony and Martyrdom among China’s Hui Muslims.”
53MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution, 387.
54Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 137–40; MacFarquhar and Schoenhals, Mao’s Last Revolution, 387–88. Sources differ on the length of the engagement. Gladney states that the fighting lasted seven days, while MacFarquhar and Schoenhals record it as twenty-one.
55Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 140; Turnbull, “In Pursuit of Islamic ‘Authenticity,’” 48–49.
56The Gang of Four was a faction of the CCP, comprised of Jiang Qing, Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenuyan, and Wang Hongwen, that gained de facto control of the Party’s leadership structure in the late stages of the Cultural Revoluaiton (1966–76) and largely shouldered the blame for the calamities occurring during the campaign.
57Su, “Harmony and Martyrdom among China’s Hui Muslims.”
58Turnbull, “In Pursuit of Islamic ‘Authenticity,’” 48.
59Allès, Chérif-Chebbi, and Halfon, “Chinese Islam,” 12.
60Andrew Jacobs, “Light Government Touch Lets China’s Hui Practice Islam in the Open,” New York Times, February 1, 2016; “The Hui: China’s Other Muslims”; Su, “Meet China’s State-Approved Muslims.”
61Gladney, Dislocating China, 99–103.
62Interview, XN150061516.
63For more on Saudi influence on Hui communities and its influence on Sino-Saudi relations, see Al-Sudairi, “Adhering to the Ways of Our Western Brothers.”
64Field observation, Najiahu, February 2016.
65Smith Finley, “Now We Don’t Talk Anymore.”
66Field observation, Xining, July 2014.
67Field observations, Ningxia Provincial Museum, February 2016.
68Field observations, Najiahu Hui Culture Park, July 2014.
69Cooke, “Surviving State and Society in Northwest China,” 416. Cooke makes similar observations about the current presentation of Ma Bufang’s life at the museum that now occupies his former place of residence in Xining. She contends that “the state has not yet resolved how to deal with this legacy.”
70Personal communication, Yinchuan, July 2014.
71Field observations, Najiahu Hui Culture Park, July 2014.
72Field observations, Najiahu Hui Culture Park, July 2014.
73Field observations, Yinchuan, February 2016.
74The term qingzhen literally translates to “pure” (qing) and “true” (zhen). Though it is often used as essentially interchangeable with halal, it may be used to describe lifestyle habits other than diet. Chapter 4 provides a more thorough discussion of the meaning and usage of the term.
75Field observations, Jinan, November 2015.
76Field observations, Yinchuan, March 2016.
77On this phenomenon, see Schein, “Gender and Internal Orientalism in China”; Comaroff and Comaroff, Ethnicity, Inc.
78Interview, JN39111115.
79Interview, YN106032616.
80Field observations, Yinchuan, February 2016.
81Interview, JN32103115.
82Interview, JN22101315.
83Field observations, Weizhou, February 2016.
84Gaubatz, Beyond the Great Wall.
85Zhou and Ma, Development and Decline of Beijing’s Hui Muslim Community.
86Field observations, Jinan, July 2014.
87Gaubatz, Beyond the Great Wall, 54–62.
88Interview, BJ11091715.
89Interview, BJ11091715.
90Though often translated as “quality” or “intrinsic qualities,” the word suzhi is a floating signifier that resists easy translation into English. As such I follow recent scholarship in choosing to leave it untranslated. The word, promoted by both state and popular discourse, implies a measurement of the quality of individual citizens, but may also be abstracted to assess larger groups and is frequently cited to explain or justify inequalities in social or economic hierarchies. See Zhang, “Governing (through) Trustworthiness,” 569–70.
91Interview, XN117041616.
92Kipnis, “Neoliberalism Reified”; Han, “Policing and Racialization of Rural Migrant Workers in Chinese Cities”; Wilczak, “‘Clean, Safe and Orderly’”; Zhang, “Governing Neoliberal Authoritarian Citizenship,” 869; Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 44–45.
93Interview, BJ30102415.
94Interview, JN41112015.
95Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 128–30.
96Interview, JN39111115.
97Interview, JN41112015.
98Interview, JN22101315
99Interview, JN23101515
100Interview, JN53120515.
101Hoshino, “Preferential Policies for China’s Ethnic Minorities at a Crossroads”; Hansen, Lessons in Being Chinese, 3–24; Zhaxi, “Housing Subsidy Projects in Amdo”; Sturgeon, “The Cultural Politics of Ethnic Identity in Xishuangbanna, China’”; Park and Han, “A Minority Group and China’s One-Child Policy.”
102Hoshino, “Preferential Policies for China’s Ethnic Minorities at a Crossroads,” 7.
103Interview, JN18100515.
104Interview, JN32103115.
105Field observations, Laozhai, December 2015.
106Interview, XN112041216.
107Carrico, The Great Han.
1Interview, YN108033016.
2Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood.”
3Haleem, The Qur’an, 2:221. The text of sura 2, ayat 221 reads, “Do not marry idolatresses until they believe: a believing slave woman is certainly better than an idolatress, even though she may please you. And do not give your women in marriage to idolaters until they believe.”
4Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood,” 544.
5Fox, “The Edges of the Nation.”
6Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood,” 543.
7Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany, 22.
8Roeder, “Soviet Federalism and Ethnic Mobilization”; Marx, Making Race and Nation; Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire.
9Anderson, Imagined Communities, 166, 168–70, 184.
10Tilly, Durable Inequality, 52–77; Hirschman, “The Meaning and Measurement of Ethnicity in Malaysia.”
11Citrin and Sears, “Balancing National and Ethnic Identities,” 147–49.
12Cheung, Lee, and Nedilsky, Marginalization in China, 11.
13Bai, “Identity Reproducers beyond the Grassroots.”
14Stevan Harrell remarks that while the minzu system provides an illusion of uniformity within groups, in reality actors face daily choices about identity; decisions ordinary people make about whether or not to reinforce or cross ethnic boundaries may result from processes of both intention and selection (Ways of Being Ethnic in Southwest China, 313–30).
15Gil-White, “How Thick Is Blood?”
16Anthias and Yuval-Davis, “Introduction”; Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, Bases; Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation; McClintock, “Family Feuds”; Özkırımlı, Theories of Nationalism, 175–82.
17Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation, 11–22.
18Anthias and Yuval-Davis, “Introduction,” 9.
19Yuval-Davis, Gender and Nation, 22–25.
20Yuval-Davis, “National Reproduction and ‘the Demographic Race’ in Israel.”
21Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood,” 542.
22Landau, “Religiosity, Nationalism and Human Reproduction,” 71.
23McClintock, “Family Feuds”; Anthias, “Women and Nationalism in Cyprus.”
24People’s Republic of China, National Bureau of Statistics, “Sixth National Population Census of the People’s Republic of China, 2010.”
25See, for instance, Jinba, In the Land of the Eastern Queendom, 117–27.
26Heberer, China and Its National Minorities, 16; Cheung, Lee, and Nedilsky, Marginalization in China, 12.
27Harrell, Ways of Being Ethnic in Southwest China, 264–65.
28Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation, 123.
29Schein, Minority Rules, 69–86.
30Altner, “Do All the Muslims of Tibet Belong to the Hui Nationality?”
31Chang, “Self-Identity versus State Identification of ‘Tibetan-Speaking Muslims’ in the Kaligang Area of Qinghai.”
32For the Naxi, see Yuan and Mitchell, “Land of the Walking Marriage”; White, “State Discourses, Minority Policies, and the Politics of Identity in the Lijiang Naxi People’s Autonomous County”; Mathieu, “Lost Kingdoms and Forgotten Tribes.” For the Zhuang, see Mullaney, Coming to Terms with the Nation, 120–34. For the Yao, see Litzinger, Other Chinas. For the Yi, see Harrell, Ways of Being Ethnic in Southwest China. For the Miao, see Schein, Minority Rules.
33Harrell, Ways of Being Ethnic in Southwest China, 313–30.
34Smith, “‘Making Culture Matter,’” 162–63.
35Goldstein et al. , “Fertility and Family Planning in Rural Tibet,” 36.
36Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 242–59.
37Zang, “Hui Muslim–Han Chinese Differences in Perceptions on Endogamy in Urban China.”
38Ha, “Religion of the Father,” 8–13.
39Jaschok and Shui, The History of Women’s Mosques in Chinese Islam, 143.
40Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 229–60.
41The CCP’s early efforts to establish a Hui identity are the subject of extensive study from the Party, mostly notably the now famous volume Huihui minzu wenti by Ya and Li. See also Liu, “Yan’an shiqi de Huizu yu Yisilanjiao gongzuo,” 26–29; Hua and Zhai, “Minguo shiqi de Huizu jieshuo yu Zhongguo Gongchangdang ‘Huihui minzu wenti’ de lilun yiyi.”
42Lipman, Familiar Strangers, xxii.
43Israeli, Islam in China, 272.
44Interview, YN83021216.
45Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 62.
46Interview, XN112041316.
47Interview, XN116041516.
48Interview, JN48112615.
49Interview, JN27102015.
50Interview, JN46112515.
51Interview, JN46112515.
52Interview, JN47112615.
53Interview, XN129050116.
54Interview, JN56120915.
55Interview, XN119041916.
56Interview, XN111041216.
57Interview, JN52120415.
58Interviews, JN28102215, JN36111015, JN46112515, JN48112615, YN8120416.
59Interview, JN28102215.
60Interview, JN48112615.
61Interviews, JN52120415, YN68012016 YN75012616, YN80020416, YN8120416, YN106032616, XN134050716.
62Interview, XN134050716.
63Interview, XN128043016.
64Ha, “Religion of the Father.”
65Ha, “Religion of the Father,” 7–10, 65, 90.
66Interview, BJ65010716.
67Interview, XN122042216.
68Interview, XN112041316.
69Interview, JN44112515. The term xili is usually translated as “baptism.” The respondent’s use of the term is not standard, nor is xili commonly used in Hui Islam. Rather, the term wudu is used to refer to ablutions or ritual washing before prayer. In our conversation, the respondent specified that the xili he described was a ritual in which one became a Muslim, though he did not elaborate much further. Muslim conversion ceremonies in China, such as one I observed in Yinchuan in January 2016, do not use ablutions in ways that differ from normal prayer, and the respondent did not indicate that this ritual involved special acts of washing. I thus elect to leave the term untranslated to preserve his intended meaning.
70Interview, XN143050216.
71Interview, XN122042216.
72Interview, XN111041216.
73Interview, XN134050716.
74Interview, BJ65010716.
75Interview, BJ29102315.
76Interview, BJ09091615.
77Interview, BJ29102315.
78Interview, BJ01082815.
79Interview, BJ29102315.
80Interviews, JN34110415, JN41112015, JN46112515.
81Interviews, JN32103115, JN36111015, JN48112615.
82Interview, JN42112215.
83Interview, JN34110415.
84Interviews, JN27102015, JN28102215, JN32103115.
85Interview, JN32103115.
86Interview, JN28102215.
87Interview, JN36111015.
88Interviews, XN144052316, XN143052116, XN119041916, XN111041216.
89Interview, XN120042016.
90Interview, XN139051616.
91Interview, XN130050416.
92Interview, XN117041616.
93Interviews, YN68012016, YN69012116, YN73012316, YN75012616, YN76012616, YN900022116, YN107033016, YN108033016.
94Interview, YN95022916.
95Interview, YN94022416.
96Interview, YN80020416.
97Interview, YN108033016.
98Interview, YN106032616.
3. TALKING
1Gongbei (拱北) are mausoleum complexes that house the tombs of Sufi Muslim masters who served as the heads of their orders, and their disciples. The term bai maozi literally translates to “white hat” and refers to a number of styles of Muslim head coverings, including knit skullcaps and stiffer, rounded caps. Confusingly, some respondents referred to caps as bai maozi even if they were not white.
2Field observations, Xining, April 2016.
3Field observations, Yinchuan, January 2016.
4Interviews, XN115041516, XN134050716, XN135050916, XN143052116, XN146052816.
5Interviews, LZ03070914, LZ04070914.
6Petersen, Interpreting Islam in China, 1–26.
7Billig, Banal Nationalism, 87.
8De Cillia, Reisigl, and Wodak, “The Discursive Construction of National Identities,” 153.
9Laferriere, “Ethnicity in Phonological Variation and Change”; Wei, “The ‘Why’ and ‘How’ Questions in the Analysis of Conversational Code-Switching.”
10Bonner, “Garifuna Children’s Language Shame”; Koziura, “Everyday Ethnicity in Chernivtsi, Western Ukraine”; Vigil and Bills, “Spanish Language Variation and Ethnic Identity in New Mexico.”
11Jones and Merriman, “Hot, Banal and Everyday Nationalism”; Raento, “Political Mobilisation and Place-Specificity.”
12Mullaney, “Critical Han Studies.” See Lenin, The Rights of Nations to Self-Determination; Lenin, National Liberation, Socialism and Imperialism.
13Brady, “Ethnicity and the State in Contemporary China,” 4.
14Hansen, Lessons in Being Chinese, 1–24.
15Hansen, Lessons in Being Chinese, 1–24; Postiglione, “Introduction”; Johnson and Chhetri, “Exclusionary Policies and Practices in Chinese Minority Education”; Shih, Negotiating Ethnicity in China, 163–96; Tsung, Language Power and Hierarchy, 23–58; Grose, Negotiating Inseparability in China.
16Postiglione, “Introduction,” 4, 8–10.
17Glasserman, “Making Muslims Hui.”
18Interview, XN115041516.
19Borchigud, “The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity”; Bilik, “Language Education, Intellectuals and Symbolic Representation”; Burgjin and Bilik, “Contemporary Mongolian Population Distribution, Migration, Cultural Change, and Identity”; Bulag, “Mongolian Ethnicity and Linguistic Anxiety in China”; Ojijed, “Language Competition in an Ethnic Autonomous Region.”
20Enwall, “Inter-Ethnic Relations in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia,” 244, 254–56.
21Borchigud, “The Impact of Urban Ethnic Education on Modern Mongolian Ethnicity.”
22Bulag, “Mongolian Ethnicity and Linguistic Anxiety in China,” 753–55.
23Helen Davidson, “Inner Mongolia Protests at China’s Plans to Bring in Mandarin-Only Lessons,” Guardian, September 1, 2020.
24Atwood, “Bilingual Education in Inner Mongolia”; Jargalsaikhan, “Mongolia’s Response to China’s New Educational Policy in Inner Mongolia.”
25Kaltman, Under the Heel of the Dragon, 3–4, 15–17, 20, 35, 39, 66, 78–79; Lim, “China’s Ethnic Policies in the Xinjiang Region.”
26Kaltman, Under the Heel of the Dragon, 17–29.
27Grose, “Uyghur University Students and Ramadan.”
28Kaltman, Under the Heel of the Dragon, 17–29.
29Hillman, “The Rise of the Community in Rural China”; Gladney, “Islam in China,” 91; Andaya, Leaves of the Same Tree, 45, 168; Chang, “Self-Identity versus State Identification of ‘Tibetan-Speaking Muslims’ in the Kaligang Area of Qinghai”; Hille, Horlemann, and Nietupski, Muslims in Amdo Tibetan Society.
30Ma, “Huizu yuyan jiqi fanying de minzu rentong xinli”; Song et al., “Cong Huizu yuyan kanqi minzu rentong.”
31Israeli, Islam in China, 60–63, 122.
32Li, Ma, and Ma, “Cong Huizu yuyan jiedu qi minzu rentong.”
33Ben-Dor Benite, The Dao of Muhammad.
34Jin, “Alaboyu jiaoxue zai Ningxia de lishi yange ji qi minjian tedian.”
35Ma, Zhongguo Xibei Yisilanjiao jiben tezheng, 38.
36Ma, “Zhongguo Yisilanjiao de jiben tezheng,” 103.
37Lipman, Familiar Strangers, 49–51.
38Ben-Dor Benite, The Dao of Muhammad, 13.
39Lipman, Familiar Strangers, 215.
40Interviews, LZ03070914, LZ04070914.
41Interview, JN63122015.
42Interview, JN51120315.
43Interview, JN52120415.
44Field observations, Yinchuan, January 2016.
45I characterize this campaign as one intended to achieve de-Islamification. While the state contended that these efforts were to combat forces of extremism, Arabization (Shahua, or A’hua), and “pan-halalifcation” ( fanqingzhenhua), the enactment of such measures coincided with the rise of a sentiment that regarded Islam itself as dangerous. See Stroup, “The De-Islamification of Public Space and Sinicization of Ethnic Politics in Xi’s China.”
46Ho, “Mobilizing the Muslim Minority for China’s Development”; Chen, “Zhong-A Hezuo luntan li yi lai de zhongguo dui A meiti jiaoliu”; Qian, “‘One Belt One Road’ Initiative and China and the Middle East Media Exchanges.”
47Field observations, Beijing, September 2015.
48Field observations, Jinan, October 2015.
49Interview, YN92022216.
50Field observations, Beijing, December 2015.
51Field observations, Jinan, October 2015.
52Interviews, JN32103115, XN125042616, LZ02070814, LZ03070914, LZ04070914.
53Interviews, BJ02082915, BJ09091615, JN43112415, JN52120415, JN62122015, YN72012216, YN92022216, YN98031716, XN120042016.
54Interview, XN124042516.
55Interview, YN105032316.
56Interview, BJ14092415.
57Interviews, BJ09091615, BJ30102415, BJ65010716, JN52120415, YN109033116, XN137051216, XN151061716.
58Field observations, Lanzhou, July 2014.
59Interview, YN105032316.
60Field observations, Beijing, September 2015.
61Interview, YN7712816.
62Interview, JN61121615.
63Interviews, BJ65010716, YN86021516, YN88022016, YN104032216, XN122042216, XN124042516, XN143052116.
64Interview, BJ09091615.
65Interview, LZ02070814.
66Interview, YN72012216.
67Interview, XN120042016.
68Interview, BJ14092415.
69Field observations, Xining, May 2016.
70Field observations, Xining, April 2016.
71Interview, BJ64123015.
72Interview, JN63122015.
73As a nonspeaker of Persian languages, I was not able to independently verify this claim, though a combined search of Persian-English dictionaries at the University of Chicago’s Digital Dictionaries of South Asia website gives the word deegar or digar (رگید) as meaning “different; other; separate,” lending credibility to the respondent’s claim of digaizi as a Persianderived term for people outside of the group. Regardless of accuracy, the respondent’s citation of this word as a marker of speech signifying ethnic difference between local Hui and non-Hui holds significance. I thank Eric Schluessel for his consultation on this subject.
74Interview, JN52120415.
75Interview, JN63122015; confirmed by Interview, JN52120415. These names are also listed in Leslie’s index of major Chinese Islamic surnames, though their origins in Persian, Arabic, or Turkic languages is not traced. See Leslie, Islamic Literature in Chinese Late Ming and Early Ch’ing.
76Interviews, BJ09091615, JN44112515, JN52120415, JN62122015, YN69012116, YN74012416, YN109033116, XN113041316, XN116041516.
77Interview, JN32103115.
78Interviews, YN92022216, YN97031716, YN101032116, YN10532316, YN107033016 XN114041416.
79Interview, YN97031716.
80Interview, YN104032216.
81Field observations, Weizhou, February 2016.
82Chris Baynes, “China Bans Children in Muslim County from Attending Religious Events during Holidays,” Independent, January 17, 2018; Feng, “‘Afraid We Will Become the Next Xinjiang.’”
83Field observations, Yinchuan, March 2016.
84Interview, YN101032116.
85Interview, XN115041516.
86Field observations, Xining, April 2016.
87Interview, XN135050916.
88Interview, XN118041816.
89Interviews, JN24101515, JN27102015, JN32103115, JN34110415, JN57121015.
90Interview, JN31103015.
91Interview, JN37111115.
92Interview, JN23101515.
93Interview, YN105032316.
94Ho, “Mobilizing the Muslim Minority for China’s Development.”
95Interview, BJ08091215.
96Interview, BJ02082915.
97Field observations, Beijing, September 2015.
98Interview, BJ01082815.
99Interview, JN2101215.
100Interview, JN33110115.
101Interviews, BJ08091215, BJ11091715, JN24101515, JN37111115, YN74012416, YN94022416, XN112041316, XN113041316, XN117041616, XN120042016, XN121042116, XN123042316.
102Interviews, JN33110115, JN47112615, JN621212015, YN90022116, XN112041316, XN113041316, XN128043016, XN130050416.
103Interview, JN47112615.
104Interview, JN62122015.
105Interview, XN112041316.
106Interview, JN50120315.
107Interview, JN61121615.
108Interview, JN52210415.
109Interview, XN135050916.
110Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community, 55–56.
111Interview, XN150061516.
4. CONSUMING
1Interview, YN83021216.
2Interview, JN46112515.
3This is especially true regarding meat, as a famous Chinese aphorism observes: “Any animal whose back faces the sun can be eaten” (Beiji chaotian, renjie keshi). Many Hui respondents mentioned this to me when describing a Han diet.
4Interview, JN22101315.
5Kuşçular, Cleanliness in Islam, 3–23, 65–73.
6Wilson and Liu, “Shaping the Halal into a Brand?”
7Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 278.
8Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 171.
9Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 419–21.
10Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 7–15; Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 114–25.
11Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 115–17, 119, 124.
12Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 13–15.
13Ha, “Specters of Qingzhen.”
14Brose and Su, “Marketing as Pedagogy.”
15Cesaro, “Consuming Identities,” 229.
16Gladney, Muslim Chinese, 175, 189.
17Field observation, Xining, April 2016.
18Interview, BJ30102415.
19Huizhong Wu, “Sign of the Times: China’s Capital Orders Arabic, Muslim Symbols Taken Down,” Reuters, August 1, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-religion-islam-idUSKCN1UQ0JF.
20Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community.
21On food safety in China, see Michael Moss and Neil Gough, “Food Safety in China Still Faces Big Hurdles,” New York Times, July 23, 2014; Klein, “Everyday Approaches to Food Safety in Kunming”; Liu, Pieniak, and Verbeke, “Food-Related Hazards in China”; Rimal et al., “Perception of Food Safety and Changes in Food Consumption Habits.”
22Interviews, BJ29102315, XN117041616.
23Interview, JN46112515.
24Interview, YN153011816.
25Field observations, Beijing, August 2015.
26Field observations, Xining, May 2016.
27Sai, “Policy, Practice and Perceptions of Qingzhen (Halal) in China”; Hong et al., “Determinants of Halal Purchasing Behaviour,”410.
28For more on China’s halal food certification processes, see Sai, “Policy, Practice and Perceptions of Qingzhen (Halal) in China”; Brose, “Permitted and Pure.”
29Erie, “Muslim Mandarins in Chinese Courts,” 1006–7.
30Sai, “Policy, Practice and Perceptions of Qingzhen (Halal) in China,” 4–6.
31Interviews, YN78012916, YN79012916, YN87021816, YN88022016, YN89022016, YN91022216, YN99031816.
32Field observations, Yinchuan, January 2016.
33Interview, JN26101915.
34Interviews, YN153011816, JN61121615.
35Interview, JN61121615.
36Interview, YN79012916.
37Field observations, Xining, April 2016.
38Field observations, Yinchuan, February 2016.
39Interview, XN136051216.
40Interview, YN91022216.
41Interview, XN138051316.
42Gillette, “Children’s Food and Islamic Dietary Restrictions in Xi’an.”
43Gillette, Between Mecca and Beijing, 167–91.
44Interview, XN144052316.
45Field observations, Yinchuan, January 2016.
46Field observations, Weizhou, February 2016.
47Interview, XN129050116.
48Field observations, Yinchuan, January 2016.
49Field observations, Yinchuan, January 2016.
50Field observations, Najiahu, February 2016.
51Interviews, JN42112215, JN43112415, JN54120715, JN61121615.
52Interview, JN49120115.
53Field observations, Jinan, October 2015.
1For a complete discussion of the forms and purposes of dhikr, see Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 352; Harris, Soundscapes of Uyghur Islam.
2Field observations, Xining, June 2016.
3Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.
4Here I follow Rogers Brubaker, who observes that groupness “varies not only across putative groups, but within them; it may wax and wane over time, peaking during exceptional—but unsustainable—moments of collective effervescence” (Ethnicity without Groups, 4).
5Goode, “Humming Along.”
6Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.
7Hwang and Schneider, “Performance, Meaning, and Ideology in the Making of Legitimacy”; Xi, “Media Events Are Still Alive.”
8Wedeen, Ambiguities of Domination.
9Scott, The Art of Not Being Governed; McGarry, “‘Demographic Engineering.’”
10Li, “Minorities, Tourism and Ethnic Theme Parks.”
11Harrell, Ways of Being Ethnic in Southwest China; McCarthy, Communist Multiculturalism, 7.
12Schein, Minority Rules.
13Goode, “Humming Along.”
14Certeau, The Practice of Everyday Life.
15Fox, “National Holiday Commemorations.”
16Tsang and Woods, The Cultural Politics of Nationalism and Nation-Building.
17Anderson, Imagined Communities.
18Fox and Miller-Idriss, “Everyday Nationhood,” 549.
19Edensor, National Identity, Popular Culture and Everyday Life, 95–98.
20Karner, Ethnicity and Everyday Life, 27–29.
21Mazumdar and Mazumdar, “The Articulation of Religion in Domestic Space.”
22Wilton, “Bound from Head to Toe.”
23Carrico, The Great Han.
24Svensson, “Clothing in the Arctic,” 72; Quizon, “Costume, Kóstyom, and Dress.”
25Harrell, “Reading Threads.”
26Field observations, Beijing, September 2015.
27Schein, Minority Rules, 6–7.
28Brady, “‘We Are All Part of the Same Family’”; McCarthy, Communist Multiculturalism.
29Gladney, Dislocating China, 23; Gladney, “Representing Nationality in China,” 92, 95.
30Gladney, “Representing Nationality in China,” 98–103.
31Liang, “Turning Gwer Sa La Festival into Intangible Cultural Heritage.”
32Interview, XN118041816.
33Field observations, Xining, April–June 2016.
34Interview, XN141051616.
35Interview, XN148053016.
36Interviews, JN28102215, JN32103115, JN36111015, XN115041516.
37Interview, JN43112415.
38Interview, JN51120315.
39Interview, BJ01082815.
40Interview, XN144052316.
41Interview, JN50120315.
42Interview, JN52120415.
43For a complete discussion of the various Sufi orders prominent in China, particularly in Qinghai, Gansu, and Ningxia, see Lipman, “Hyphenated Chinese”; Dillon, China’s Muslim Hui Community.
44Interviews, YN69012116, YN74012416, XN112041316, XN113041316, XN115041516, XN128043016, XN147052916.
45Interview, BJ14092415.
46Interview, XN150061516.
47See the introduction for an explanation of the relationship between the Yihewani in China and the global Ikhwan.
48Interviews, LZ03070914, LZ04070914.
49See Bruinessen, “Global and Local in Indonesian Islam”; Beránek and Ťupek, The Temptation of Graves in Salafi Islam; Schmoller, “The Talking Dead.”
50Interview, XN141051616.
51Ha, “The Silent Hat”; Grose, “Veiled Identities.”
52For a more thorough discussion of the types of women’s headcoverings worn in China, see illustrations in Grose, “Veiled Identities”; Leibold and Grose, “Islamic Veiling in Xinjiang.”
53Field observations, Beijing, September 2015.
54Leibold and Grose, “Islamic Veiling in Xinjiang,” 88–97.
55Interviews, JN37111115, JN57121015, YN108033016, YN80020416, YN84021316, XN117041616, XN121042116.
56Interview, JN61121615.
57interview, XN121042116.
58Interview, YN84021316.
59Interview, JN34110415.
60Amer, What Is Veiling?, 12–14, 23.
61Qur’an 24:30–31, 33:53, 59.
62Amer, What Is Veiling?, 28–37.
63Interview, XN144052316. The respondent phrased this as being a hege de musilin.
64Interview, XN145052516.
65Interviews, XN120042016, XN134050716.
66Interview, XN134050716.
67Interview, YN72012216.
68Field observations, Beijing, July 2016.
69Interview, XN118041816.
70Interview, YN152011816.
71Interview, JN34110415.
72Interview, JN23101515.
73Interview, JN28102215. Though Xi’an and Shaanxi are not typically included in the northwest, the presumed superiority of piety exercised by Hui in these areas grouped them as belonging with Xibei Hui in the mind of the respondent.
74Interviews, BJ01082815, BJ08091215, JN22101315, JN32103115, JN34110415, JN47112615, JN48112615, JN62122015, YN76012616, YN83021216, XN117041616, XN120042016, XN128043016, XN130050416.
75Field observations, Beijing, July 2016.
76Interview, YN77012816.
77Interview, YN105032316.
78Turnbull, “In Pursuit of Islamic ‘Authenticity.’”
79Hillman, “The Rise of the Community in Rural China.”
80Interview, JN51120315.
81Interviews, JN23101515, JN51120315, JN52120415.
82Interview, JN46112515.
83Interviews, YN92022216, YN104032216, YN105032316.
84Interview, YN152011816.
85Interview, JN61121615.
CONCLUSION
1Field observations, Yinchuan, March 2016.
2Miller, China’s Urban Billion.
3Interview, XN121042116.
4Gladney, “Relational Alterity,” 445–46.
5In Nationalist Politics and Everyday Ethnicity in a Transylvanian Town, Brubaker et al., address this issue extensively in the appendices.
6Fox and Jones, “Migration, Everyday Life and the Ethnicity Bias,” 387.
7Glick Schiller, Çağlar, and Guldbrandsen, “Beyond the Ethnic-Lens.”
8Bastia, “Migration as Protest?”
9Adida, “Too Close for Comfort?”
10Brubaker, “The ‘Diaspora’ Diaspora,” 6–7.
11McLoughlin, “Locating Muslim Diasporas.”
12Adida, “Too Close for Comfort?”; Brubaker, “Migration, Membership, and the Modern Nation-State.”
13Redclift, “Displacement, Integration and Identity in the Postcolonial World,” 118.
14Alexander, Chatterji, and Jalais, The Bengal Diaspora, 3–4.
15Brubaker, “Migration, Membership, and the Modern Nation-State,” 64.
16Redclift, “Displacement, Integration and Identity in the Postcolonial World,” 125.
17Dobson, “Unpacking Children in Migration Research.”
18Demintseva, “‘Migrant Schools’ and the ‘Children of Migrants.’”
19Skrbiš, Baldassar, and Poynting, “Introduction,” 263.
20Hammond, This Place Will Become Home, 1–29.
21Dobson, “Unpacking Children in Migration Research,” 358.
22Light et al., “Internal Ethnicity in the Ethnic Economy.”
23Chandra, “Ethnic Parties and Democratic Stability,” 241; Fox and Jones, “Migration, Everyday Life and the Ethnicity Bias,” 391.
24For a more comprehensive assessment of Beijing’s migrant population, see especially Zhang, Strangers in the City.
25For extensive firsthand accounts, see Meyer, The Last Days of Old Beijing; Dutton, Lo, and Wu, Beijing Time.
26Benjamin Haas, “China: ‘Ruthless’ Campaign to Evict Beijing’s Migrant Workers Condemned,” Guardian, November 27, 2017; Simon Denyer and Luna Lin, “Mass Evictions in Freezing Beijing Winter Sparks Public Outrage but Little Official Remorse,” Washington Post, November 27, 2017; Steven Lee Myers, “A Cleanup of ‘Holes in the Wall’ in China’s Capital,” New York Times, July 17, 2017; Helen Roxburgh, “China’s Radical Plan to Limit the Populations of Beijing and Shanghai,” Guardian, March 19, 2018.
27Interviews, BJ02082915, BJ30102415, BJ64123015, BJ65010716.
28Interview, BJ02082915.
29Interview, BJ30102415.
30Field observations, Beijing, August 2015.
31Interview, BJ64123015.
32Field observations, Beijing, August 2015.
33Interview, BJ30102415.
34Interviews, BJ01082815, BJ06090515, BJ10091615.
35Interview, BJ06090515.
36Field observations, Beijing, August 2015.
37Field observations, Beijing, July 2016.
38Interview, BJ11091615.
39Interview, BJ12091615.
40Interview, BJ10091615.
41Interview, BJ65010716.
42Interview, BJ14092415.
43Interview BJ02082915.
44Interview, BJ30102415.
45Interview, JN43112415.
46Interview, JN32103115.
47Interview, JN50120315.
48Interview, JN26101915.
49Interview, JN52120415.
50Interview, JN61121615.
51Interview, JN43112415.
52Interview, XN141051616.
53Interview, XN112041316.
54Interview, XN120042016.
55Interview, XN148053016.
56Interview, XN150061516.
57Interview, XN138051316.
58For a more complete overview of Linxia’s historical development and the dynamics of economic and religious life, particularly in the predominantly Muslim bafang area, see Erie, China and Islam, 86–129.
59Interview, YN76012616.
60Interview, YN108033016.
61Interview, YN73012316.
62Interview, YN103032216.
63Interview, YN87021816.
64Interview, YN105032316.
65Interview, YN105032316.
66Interview, YN69012116.
67Interview, YN92022216.
68Interview, YN74012416.
69Interview, YN104032216.
70Interview, YN92022216.
71Interview, XN135050916.
72Interviews, XN112041316, XN115041516, XN121042116, XN129050116, XN143052116, XN145052516.
73Interview, XN115041516.
74Interview, XN121042116.
75Interview, XN129050116.
76Interview, XN112041316.
77Interview, XN114041416.
78Interview, XN115041516.
79Interview, XN117041616.
80Interview, YN83021216.
81Interview, YN72012216.
82Interviews, XN121042116, XN128043016, XN134050716, XN144052316, XN145052516.
83Interview, XN145052516.
84Interview, YN103032216.
85Interview, XN112041316.
86Interview, XN143052116.
87Field observations, Jinan, November 2015.
88Interview, JN23101515.
89Interview, JN52120415.
90Brown, “Ethicity, Nationalism, and Democracy in South-East Asia.”
91Linz, Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes, 49–61, 159–71.
92Glasius et al., Research, Ethics and Risk in the Authoritarian Field, 38–39.
93Slater, Ordering Power.
94Soest and Grauvogel, “Identity, Procedures and Performance.”
95Tarrow, Power in Movement, 158–80.
96Earl, “Tanks, Tear Gas, and Taxes.”
97Tarrow, Power in Movement.
98Chen, “China at the Tipping Point?”
99Tobin, “Worrying about Ethnicity.”
100McCarthy, Communist Multiculturalism, 1–19.
101Mortensen, “Prosperity, Identity, Intra-Tibetan Violence, and Harmony in Southeast Tibet.”
102Leibold, “Interethnic Coflict in the PRC.”
103Leibold, “Interethnic Conflict in the PRC,” 240.
104Gladney, Dislocating China, 27.
EPILOGUE
1Smith Finley, “Securitization, Insecurity and Conflict in Contemporary Xinjiang.”
2Zenz and Leibold, “Chen Quanguo.”
3Roberts, “The Biopolitics of China’s ‘War on Terror’ and the Exclusion of the Uyghurs,” 245–52; Byler, “Ghost World.”
4Smith Finley, “Securitization, Insecurity and Conflict in Contemporary Xinjiang,” 12–13; Rachel Harris, “Bulldozing Mosques: The Latest Tactic in China’s War against Uighur Culture,” Guardian, April 7, 2019; Eva Xiao and Pak Yiu, “Even in Death, Uighurs Feel Long Reach of Chinese State,” AFP News, October 9, 2019.
5Zenz, “‘Thoroughly Reforming Them towards a Healthy Heart Attitude.’”
6Smith Finley, “Securitization, Insecurity and Conflict in Contemporary Xinjiang.”
7“Uighurs ‘Detained for Beards and Veils.’”
8Stroup, “The De-Islamification of Public Space and Sinicization of Ethnic Politics in Xi’s China.”
9Benjamin Haas, “China Bans Religious Names for Muslim Babies in Xinjiang,” Guardian, April 24, 2017; “Are China’s Hui Muslims Next to Face Crackdown?,” South China Morning Post, May 18, 2017.
10Nectar Gan, “How China Is Trying to Impose Islam with Chinese Characteristics in the Hui Muslim Heartland,” South China Morning Post, May 14, 2018.
11Liu Xin, “Ningxia Changes Halal Label amid Pan-Islam Backlash,” Global Times, March 26, 2018.
12Sigal Samuel, “China Is Treating Islam Like a Mental Illness,” Atlantic, August 28, 2018; “Standoff over China Mosque Demolition”; Nectar Gan, “Chinese Hui Muslim Protest Forces Authorities to Halt Plan to Demolish Weizhou Grand Mosque,” South China Morning Post, August 9, 2018.
13Gansu Sheng Huanjing Baihu Ting, “Linxiazhou huanbaoju quanmian guanche luoshi quanzhou Yisilanjiao gongzuo huiyi jingshen.”
14Ji Yuqiao, “Ningxia Learns from Xinjiang How to Fight Terrorism,” Global Times, November 27, 2018.
15William Yang, “Chinese Police Officers Have Raided Mosques in a New Crackdown on Religion,” BuzzFeed News, December 30, 2018.
16Steven Lee Myers, “A Crackdown on Islam Is Spreading across China,” New York Times, September 21, 2019; Feng, “‘Afraid We Will Become the Next Xinjiang.’”
17Personal communication, February 2020.
18Huizhong Wu, “Sign of the Times: China’s Capital Orders Arabic, Muslim Symbols Taken Down,” Reuters, August 1, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-religion-islam-idUSKCN1UQ0JF.
19Austin Ramzy and Chris Buckley, “‘Absolutely No Mercy’: Leaked Files Expose How China Organized Mass Detentions of Muslims,” New York Times, November 16, 2019.
20Grose, “‘Once Their Mental State Is Healthy, They Will Be Able to Live Happily in Society.’”
21Bunin, “Xinjiang’s Hui Muslims Were Swept into Camps alongside Uighurs.”
22Viola Zhou, “‘When Are You Going Back to Arabia?’ How Chinese Muslims Became the Target of Online Hate,” South China Morning Post, March 12, 2017.
23Rose Luqiu and Fan Yang, “Anti-Muslim Sentiment Is on the Rise in China,” Washington Post, May 12, 2017.
24Kinling Lo, “Food App’s ‘Halal’ Option Puts China’s Social Media in a Stew,” South China Morning Post, July 24, 2017.
25Ma, “A New Perspective in Guiding Ethnic Relations in the Twenty-First Century,” 214.
26Sun, “Debating Ethnic Governance in China,” 124.
27Hu and Hu, “Di’erdai minzu zhengce,” 1.
28Hu and Hu, “Di’erdai minzu zhengce,” 1–2. A note on translation: in the text (written in Chinese) the authors explain why they dislike using the word minzu and instead prefer to use the word zuqun, followed parenthetically by minzu. To reflect this distinction, which the authors consider meaningful, I have translated zuqun as “ethnic groups” and left their parenthetical emphasis as it appears in the text.
29Leibold, “The Spectre of Insecurity”; Tobin, “Worrying about Ethnicity,” 65–93.
30Tobin, “Minor Events and Grand Dreams,” 759–65.
31Ishaan Tharoor, “The Alarming Rhetoric of China’s War on Terror,” Washington Post, May 30, 2014.
32Xi, “Secure a Decisive Victory.”
33Xi, “Secure a Decisive Victory.”
34Leibold, “The Spectre of Insecurity,” 1–2.
35Zhao and Leibold, “Ethnic Governance under Xi Jinping,” 8.
36Zhao and Leibold, “Ethnic Governance under Xi Jinping,” 9–12.
37Zhao and Leibold, “Ethnic Governance under Xi Jinping,” 8.
38Leibold, “The Spectre of Insecurity.”
39Sun, “Debating Ethnic Governance in China,” 125.
40Aga and Harrell, “Theory and Practice of Bilingual Education in China.”
41Sun Liping, “‘Buwending Huanxiang’ Yu Weiwen Guaiquan,” Renming Wang, July 7, 2010, http://politics.people.com.cn/GB/1026/12079703.html.
42Leibold, “The Spectre of Insecurity,” 9.
43Lim, “China’s Ethnic Policies in the Xinjiang Region.”
44Gladney, Dislocating China, 27.
45Goode, Stroup, and Gaufman, “Everyday Nationalism in Unsettled Times.”
46Author’s observations, January–February 2020. Due to heavy domestic censorship of social media platforms, these posts disappeared quickly. In lieu of hyperlinks, I provide the screenshots given in figure E.1.
47Zhou, “‘When Are You Going Back to Arabia?’”