Index
A
ahong: definition of, 4; role in Hui communities, 52, 64, 83, 89, 100, 152; training of, 86–87, 90; women performing the role of, 4, 6, 89
ai guo, ai jiao (love your country, love your faith), 11, 41, 118; modification to aiguo aidang (love your country, love the Party), 41
alcohol: debates about prohibition of, 28, 43–45, 97–100, 106–8, 144–45; in Islamic jurisprudence, 99, 106–7; and qingzhen certification, 106
Arabs: and Hui ancestry, 63, 74
Arabic language: in education, 74, 80, 83, 86–88, 94–95, 155; historical use in Hui communities, 78–81; Hui Illiteracy in, 80–82, 84, 86–92, 94, 141; influence on “Hui dialects,” ix–x, 74, 78, 82, 84–85, 90–91, 148, 204n75; as “jingwen,” 74, 82–83, 90; as a marker of Hui identity, 28, 73–74, 78, 80, 83–84, 86–88, 95–96, 97; as a “minority language,” 80, 82–83; promotion by the state in China, 81–82; removal from public spaces by the CCP, 81, 158–60, 163; as required for religious observation, 86, 88; on street signs, 20, 74, 81–82; transcription with Chinese characters, 74–75, 80–81, 92–93, 95; use in international business, 88, 90; use in qingzhen branding, 101
authoritarianism, 112–14, 130–31, 153–56
B
bai maozi (white prayer hats), 44, 46, 73, 105, 120–22, 127–28, 147, 179, 201n1; as a marker of Hui identity 105, 122
barbecue, xiii–xiv, 15, 48, 106–8, 144, 159
Beijing, 8, 14–16, 18–19, 31, 66–67, 81–82, 85, 91, 100–101, 114, 123, 134–39; “beautification” campaign in (2017), 135; chai qian in, 24, 134–35; cultural erosion in, 81–82, 91, 138; ethnic demographics of, 18–19; migration in, 26–27, 66–67, 135–36; Sinicization campaign in, 160
Beijing Committee on Ethnic and Religious Affairs, 160
Beijing Cuisine Association, 123
Beijing Halal Culinary Culture Festival, 123
Beiyang government, 11
Belt and Road Initiative, 40, 81, 90
burial traditions: differences between Han and Hui, 61–62, 70
C
census: 2010 Chinese census, 9–10, 56; in China 36, 54; as a tool for nation-building, 54–55
chai qian, xiv, 4, 19, 23–25, 103–4, 108, 134–36; as a cause for protest, 4, 25; as a form of repressive assistance, 24; social and economic consequences of, 25
Chen Quanguo, 158
Chengdong District (Xining), 21, 46, 100, 111, 117. See also Hui Quarter (Jinan); Xining
Chinese Communist Party (CCP): concern for stability 32, 34–36, 38, 50–51, 154; control over ethnic expression, 7, 32–34, 38, 40, 56, 87, 114–15, 125, 127, 130, 154–64; ethnicity policies of, 5, 11, 31–37, 49, 53, 75–78, 82, 98, 120, 123, 154–55, 157–65; legitimating narratives of, 5, 7, 32–35, 50–51, 116; promotion of Hui culture by, 9, 11, 81, 98–99, 101–2, 115, 123, 125; relations with Hui, 12, 39–42, 115–16, 118; stance on religion, 32, 162–63; suppression of Islam by, 12, 15, 39, 41, 43, 81, 87, 101, 120, 157–65. See also minzu system
Chinese Islamic Association, 76, 82, 85, 135
Chinese language, 76, 78–79, 91, 93–95, 148
Chinese People’s Political Consultative Committee (CPPCC), 48
choosing (ethnic identity), 53–55; institutions and, 54–56, limitations on, 53, 55–56, 60, 70; state ethnicity policy and, 53, 55–57, 154
cities, 14–16, 22–27; as sites of cultural contestation, 14, 22, 27
clothing, 113–14, 119–23, 145, 147
Confucianism, 13, 61, 79, 118–19
consuming (ethnic identity), 98–99
conversion to Islam, 28, 52–53, 57–58, 62–64, 68–71, 198n3; ceremonial rituals pertaining to, 200n69; gendered aspects of 62–64
COVID-19 pandemic, 164–65
cremation. See burial traditions
cross-cutting identity cleavages, 6–7, 72, 126, 130–34, 149, 155
Cultural Revolution, 40, 64–65, 84, 88–89
D
danhua, 93, 98, 141–42, 145, 149
de-Islamification campaign, 15, 43, 81–82, 100–101, 157–60, 203n45
Deng Xiaoping, 34
divorce, 62
Dongcheng District (Beijing), 100, 135–36, 138
Dongguan Mosque (Xining), 21, 37, 46, 85, 88–89, 91, 100, 115–16, 123, 191n82
Dongxiang, 9, 64, 68, 84, 95, 139
Eid al-Adha. See Gu’erbang jie
Eid al-Fitr. See Kaizhai jie
enclaves, 14–16, 22, 100, 187n4. See also cities
ethnic autonomy, x, 11, 18, 20, 37, 48, 50, 76–77, 81–82, 87, 103, 161, 163; Hui autonomous units, 20, 72, 74, 81–82, 87–88, 103, 123, 143
ethnic minorities (shaoshu minzu): assimilation of, 33, 36, 75, 160–63; costumes of, 114, 120; in CCP propaganda, 11, 31–32, 36–38, 114–16, 120, 125, 161–63; education and, 75–76, 90, 163; inequalities with Han, 33; language policy and, 74–78, 163; migration and, 25–26; musical performances of, 114–15, 193n1; prejudice against, 32–33; relations with the CCP, 4, 57, 154–55, 161
everyday ethnicity, 7–8, 27–29
F
fanghuiju program, 158
feminist theory, 55
fiqh: regarding conversion, 53, 62–63; regarding diet, 98, 107; regarding veiling, 121–22
G
gaitou (Islamic headscarf). See hijab (shajin or gaitou)
Gansu province, 6, 13, 15, 18, 20, 48, 80, 94, 124, 136, 138–39, 159, 187n2
Gansu Muslim Society for Connecting Migrant Muslims, 152
gender: effect of migration on gender norms, 126–27, 147; and women’s autonomy 53, 55, 58, 62–63
Great Southern Mosque (Jinan), 15, 80, 84, 88, 124, 160, 191n82, 191n94
Great Western Development Campaign, 142–43, 185
Gu’erbang jie (Eid al-Adha), 123, 125, 181
Guyuan Prefecture (Ningxia), 87, 128, 143–45
H
halal, 6, 14, 97–107, 188n16, 196n74, 206n28. See also qingzhen
Han: attitudes toward Hui, 12, 32–33, 42, 44, 47–50; as center of Zhonghua minzu, 21, 31, 38, 46, 76, 115, 154; conversion to Islam among, 52–53; in ethnicity propaganda, 31, 37, 114–15; ignorance of Hui culture, 43–45, 47, 50; as majority population, 116, 127, 136, 145, 151; resentments of ethnic minorities, 48–49, 50–51; views of border regions, 20–21
“Hanification” of Hui, 42, 50, 61, 69–70, 75–76, 80–81, 93, 95, 108, 119, 123, 138, 142–43, 145. See also danhua
hijab (shajin or gaitou), 28, 46, 105, 120–22, 126–27, 147, 180, 184. See also veiling
holiday celebrations, 111, 114–15, 123–25, 142
Hualong Hui Autonomous County, Qinghai, 56, 129, 151
Hui: ancestry of, ix, 9, 12–13, 63, 75, 83, 93, 118; assimilation of, 12, 13, 39, 42, 78, 80, 86, 127, 138; categorization of, 8–11, 199n41; as a Chinese speaking minority (“Hanyu minzu”), 9, 40, 74, 76, 78, 81, 86; contestation of identity among, 11, 72, 80, 91, 93, 95–96, 98, 106, 108–10, 115, 117–19, 121–22, 125–27, 129–46, 149, 153; as cultural ambassadors, 40, 81, 125, 143; descent-based designation and, 59–60; designation as shaoshu minzu, 11, 59, 199n41; dietary code and as distinguished from Han, 9, 11, 13; in enclave neighborhoods, 3–4, 14–15; endogamy and, 57–58, 60; entrepreneurship among, 14–15; as an ethnic identity, 5, 12, 58–59, 79, 118, 199n41; etymological origins of, 9, 11, 189n36; generational differences among, 91, 138; geographic distribution of, 9, 10, 13, 18; heterogeneity of, 13, 29–30, 56, 72, 78, 80, 129–46; historical evolution of, 9–13, 199n41; history since Reform and Opening (1978–present), 11–13, 39–41; Islamic scholasticism among, 78–80, 94; language and, 9, 13, 73–96; lifestyle differences with Han, 57–58, 61–62, 66, 68–69; in Ming Dynasty, 11, 78–79; as a “model minority,” 5, 11, 39, 40, 42, 50–51; from the Northwest (Xibei), 3, 80–81, 91–92, 94, 116–17, 124, 126–27, 137–42, 151–52; prejudice against, 32–33, 38–39, 46–47, 49, 51; in propaganda, 11–12, 32, 39, 41–42; public education and, 76; in Qing Dynasty, 5, 9–11, 20, 79; rebellions by, 5, 12; relations with Han 5, 8–9, 12, 31–33, 44–50, 145; relations with other Muslim minzu, 64, 68, 84, 139, 149; in Republican era, 11; sectarianism and, 13, 80, 118–19, 141–43; secularization of, 13, 117, 121, 137–38, 140–41, 145–46, 152; segregation from Han, 33, 39, 44–46, 49, 51, 127; stereotyped caricatures of, 43–44, 94–95, 149; as synonymous with “Muslim,” 8, 9, 64; urban-rural differences among, 57, 60, 64, 68, 72, 92–94, 125, 143–45, 150, 151; in Yuan Dynasty, 9, 79. See also danhua; qingzhen
Hui dialect (Hui hua), 64, 75, 81, 84–87, 90–91, 148; Arabic as, 81; decline of, 86–87, 90–91, 148; foreign influences on, 74, 78, 84–86, 90–91; regional varieties of, 84–86
Hui Quarter (Jinan) x, xiii–xv, 3–4, 14–15, 19–20, 44, 47–49, 82, 84, 88, 94, 104, 108, 123–24, 126, 139, 159–60; demographic changes in, 94, 108; hygiene in, 47–48; map of, 16; Sinicization in, 160; urban renewal in, 3–4, 159–60
Hui Quarter (Xining), 14–15, 20–21, 42, 45–46, 100, 122; map of, 17. See also Chengdong District (Xining) hukou (household registration), 59
Hu Dengzhou, 79
Hu Jintao, 34
I
iftar, 111–12
Islam: arrival in China, 78; dietary codes and, 98–99; fusion with Chinese traditions, 13, 75, 78–80, 117–19; Han ignorance concerning, 43–45; influence on Hui social norms, 53, 57–58, 60–65, 68, 71, 74, 94–95, 103, 106–8, 122; as a marker Hui identity x, 6, 8–9, 11–12, 14, 40–42, 58, 69, 81, 83, 85–86, 88, 93–94, 116–20, 125–26, 139–40, 151; sectarianism in China and, 13, 80, 118–19, 141–43; treatment as a “virus” by the CCP, 160. See also halal
Islamic names in Hui communities, 78, 86, 204n75
Islamophobia, 32, 49–50, 160, 162, 164–65
J
jiating jiaoyu (family education), 83
Jiang Zemin, 34
Jinan, x, xiii–xiv, 3–4, 14–15, 18–20, 23–26, 32, 44–45, 47–49, 51, 67–68, 71, 80–82, 84, 86, 88–90, 92–95, 104, 107–8, 116–17, 120–21, 123–24, 126–27, 139–41, 151–53, 159–60; Han-Hui relations in, 47–51; history of, 19–20; Islamic Association of, 19–20, 88–89; map of, 16; migration in, 25–26, 139–41; urban renewal in, 23–24
jinian wangren (commemoration of the dead), 117–19, 142
jingtang jiaoyu (mosque education), 79–80, 83–84, 86–88, 92, 94–95; compared to secular education, 87, 94; decline of, 84
K
Kaizhai jie (Eid al-Fitr), 74, 117, 123–25, 136–37
Kaligang (Khargang), Qinghai, 56
Karakax List, 158
Kunming Railway Attack (2014), 36, 157, 162
Kuomintang, 11, 12, 37, 42; relationship with Hui warlords, 12, 42
L
lamian, 15, 44, 91, 94, 105, 117, 129, 140, 150–51, 183, 191n78
Lanzhou, 37, 80, 83–85, 119, 137–38
Laozhaicun, Jinan, 32–33, 49, 51
language policy, 75–78, 163; and education, 76; impact on economic choices, 76–78; in Inner Mongolia, 77; in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, 77–78
Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture, 13, 15, 83, 94, 103, 118, 143, 159, 211n58
liudong renkou. See transient population
Lusha’er (Rusar), 38
M
Ma Bufang, 11, 42, 190n52, 196n69
Ma Family Warlords, 12
Ma Guoqiang, 165
Madian, 19, 66, 83, 85, 91, 135, 138; demographic decline of, 19, 91, 135; Hui dialect of, 85, 91; mosque of, 19, 83; urban renewal and, 19, 135
manla. See khalifa
markets, 100
marriage, 52–53, 55–58, 60–72; between Han and Hui, 52–53, 57–58, 60–65, 67–70; changing attitudes toward, 63, 65–68, 70; and cultural preservation, 61–63, 66, 69, 71; effect on minzu designation, 60; interethnic marriage in China, 56–58
methodology, 15–18, 21–22, 27–30, 193n141
migration, 19, 23, 25–27, 72, 93–95, 119, 125–26, 128–34, 136–39, 142, 145–48, 150–53; attitude changes among migrants, 126–27, 147–48; challenges facing migrants, 26–27, 95, 131–34, 140–41, 150–53; effect on children, 72, 132–33, 147–48, 151–52; as a form of authoritarian control, 23, 153–56; integration of migrants, 131–32; prejudice against migrants, 139, 151; sponsored by the Chinese state, 128–29
minzu system, 5, 33–36, 55–60, 72, 134, 153–56, 161–64, 189n33, 198n14, 214n2; as allowing expression of ethnic difference, 35, 56; calls for reform of, 161–64; classification criteria of, 35; definition of, 5, 35, 189n33; ethnic standardization under, 56–57; history of, 36–37; impact on ethnic identification, 56–60; link to national security, 35–36; as a method of CCP control, 33–36, 56, 153–56; patrilineal descent and, 59; preferential policy and, 54, 56; Soviet influences on 35. See also second generation of ethnic policies
minzu tuanjie (ethnic unity), 31–32, 37–39, 50–51, 162, 164; in propaganda, 37–38; use in CCP legitimation strategies, 35, 50–51
Minzu University (Beijing), 114, 120
mosques: Arabic-style architecture, 23, 159, 192n110; role of in Hui community life, x, 3–4, 6, 14–15, 19, 27, 45, 79, 83–84, 100, 111, 124, 135–36, 140, 144, 152; Sincization of, xi, 25, 158–60. See also jingtang jiaoyu (mosque education)
Mongols, 4, 76–77, 136; resistance to language education reform, 77
N
Najiahu, 5, 41–43, 69, 107; mosque of, 41
Nanbushanqu (Southern Mountain District, Ningxia), 128, 143–44
Nanguan Mosque (Yinchuan), 81, 144
Nanliang Village (Yinchuan), 128–29
New Year, 114–15, 127, 142; Hui observance of, 127; televised gala, 115
nian Hui (yearly Hui), 117
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, 13, 15, 18, 20, 48, 52, 79, 81–82, 103, 123, 128, 143–46, 158–59; autonomy policies in, 20, 81–82, 103, 123, 144; coordination with officials from Xinjiang, 159; qingzhen certification regulation in, 103
Ningxia Provincial Museum, 42–43
Niu Jie (Beijing), 5, 8, 14, 18–19, 31–32, 66–67, 81–82, 100–101, 123–24, 135–39; demographic changes in, 19, 66–67, 135–36, 138–39; diversity in, 136; map of, 16; mosque of, 14, 18–19, 135
northwest China (Xibei): cultural differences with east, 67, 75, 80–81, 85, 92, 94, 102, 124, 139–40, 142, 151–52; geographic location of, 3, 13, 20, 187n2, 209n73
People’s Liberation Army, 39–40
People’s Republic of China (PRC), x–xi, xiv–xv, 5–6, 9, 11–13, 18, 31–32, 38–40, 42, 56, 58, 78, 154
People’s War on Terror, 157–65
performing (ethnicity), 111–14
Persian language: influence on Hui dialect, ix–x, 28, 74, 77–80, 82, 84–86, 90–91, 125, 148, 204n73, 204n75
preferential policy, 18, 23, 48–51, 53–55, 123, 154, 163
prayer, 4, 80, 86–91, 111, 113, 115–19, 126, 144–45; debates over frequency of, 117–18; as a marker of Hui identity, 116, 145; obstacles to attendance, 117, 140–41
propaganda, 31–32, 37–38, 41–42, 51, 82, 114, 116, 120, 123, 125, 162
pork: Hui discomfort with, 101; Islamic taboo on, x, 28, 43, 68, 97–98, 100, 109, 138, 140–41; as slur against Hui, 49–50; as a source of tension with Han, 39, 44–45, 47, 49, 104
Putonghua. See Chinese language
Q
Qinghai Province, x, 13, 15, 18, 20, 56, 85, 88, 94, 102, 106, 109, 129, 139–42, 150, 187n2, 191n78, 208n43
Qinghai International Qingzhen Food and Ethnic Products Fair, 102
Qinghai Qingzhen Food Production Association, 105–6, 109
qingzhen, 5–7, 97–110, 122, 137, 151, 188n16, 196n74; branding and, 97, 99, 101–2, 104–5, 108–9, 122; certification, 102–3, 206n28; and cleanliness, 100–102, 106–8; compared to halal, 99–100; in cuisine, 44–45, 47, 99–110; definitions of, 5, 6, 99–102, 188n16, 196n74; fake qingzhen products, 103–6; as a force unifying Hui, 5, 7, 97, 99, 141; lack of standards for, 98, 100, 102–6, 151; as a marker of difference between Hui and Han, 47, 98–100, 104–6, 122, 137; state promotion of, 98–99, 102
Qur’an: dietary law as defined in, 98–99, 103, 106; memorization of, 87; position on marriage outside of Islam, 53, 198n3; position on veiling, 121–22; Qur’an recitation competitions, 82; recitation in Arabic, 80–81, 85, 91, 111, 141; study of in Hui communities, 87, 89–90, 140; translation into Chinese, 75, 79–80, 92–93, 95. See also halal
R
Red Guard, 49
relational alterity, 130
religious revival, 80–81, 126–27, 142
S
Salafism (Santai), 119
Salars, 9, 21, 63–64, 68, 76, 84, 93, 95, 116, 139; language and, 64, 76, 84; relations with Hui, 64, 68, 95, 116, 139
second generation of ethnic policies, 36, 160–64, 194n32
Sinicization campaign. See de-Islamification campaign
Shadian incident (Shadian shijian), 12, 39–40, 195n54
Shandong Province, xiii, 19, 64, 108, 141–42
stability, 7, 32, 34–35, 37–38, 50–51, 154, 159; connection to CCP legitimation claims, 7, 34–36, 50–51; connection to ethnic politics, 35, 37–38, 154, 159; as overriding concern of CCP governance, 34–36, 154, 159
State Ethnic Affairs Committee, 48, 162–63
State Administration for Religious Affairs, 163
Strike Hard Campaign, 157
Sufism, 13, 94, 117–18, 136, 208n43
Sun Yat-Sen, 11
T
terrorism: CCP response to 157–60, 163; messaging against, 41–42, 162
Three Forces (Sangu Shili), 162
Tibetans: discrimination of, 48; relations with Hui, x, 13, 21, 57, 63; Tibetan language, 78; unrest among, 4, 8, 35, 38
Tibetan Hui. See Zang-Hui
Tongxin County (Ningxia), 15, 46, 87, 107, 145, 159
transient population, 19, 23, 25–27; ethnic minorities and, 26
U
uncategorized minzu (wei shibie minzu), 56
United Front Work Development (UFWD), 162–63
urban renewal, 18–19, 21–27, 103–4, 108; as a means of authoritarian control, 22–23
Ürümchi Uprising (July 2009), 4, 157
Uyghurs ix–xi, 4–5, 8–9, 11–12, 25, 35, 38, 40, 57, 76–78, 100, 136, 193n1; differentiation from Hui, 9, 11; discrimination against, 150; endogamy and, 57; language policy toward, 77–78; relations with Hui, 12; repression of, 120, 158–59; reputation in contrast to Hui, 5, 8; resistance among, 4, 25, 35, 38, 40, 154; violent conflict with the state and, 157
V
veiling, 120–23, 126–27, 147, 208n52; limitations on, 120–21; as a measure of religious devotion, 121–22; styles of, 120
W
weddings, 52–53
Weishan Hui and Yi Autonomous County (Yunnan), 159
Weizhou Grand Mosque, 159
Wuhan, 164–65
Wuzhong (Ningxia), 105, 107, 143–44
X
Xi Jinping, 34, 35–36, 77, 157, 160; “China Dream” and, 35; enactment of People’s War on Terror, 157, 160; ethnic politics under, 33–36, 157–65; ideology of (Xi Jinping Thought), 77
xiaojing (xiao’er jing), 79–80, 185
Xining, x, 13–15, 18, 20–21, 37, 41, 45–46, 49, 60, 64, 67–69, 71, 73–74, 85, 88, 93, 95, 100, 102, 104–8, 111–12, 116–17, 119, 121–23, 141–43, 147–48, 150–51; as a border community, 18, 20–21; ethnic diversity in, 21, 37; Han-Hui relations in, 45–46, 49, 51; history of, 20–21; migration in, 26, 129, 141–43, 147–48, 150–51
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, x, 9, 11, 13, 18, 35–36, 38, 57, 67, 92, 120, 150, 154, 158–60, 163, 187n2; as the CCP’s model for policing ethnic and religious expression, 159; conflict in, 35, 38, 154
Xunhua Salar Autonomous County, 15, 60, 64, 116, 142, 148, 151
Y
Yangjiazhuang Mosque (Xining), 111–12
Yihewani (Ikhwan), 13, 75, 115, 119, 143, 190n66, 208n47; relationship to Muslim Brotherhood, 190n66, 208n47
Yinchuan, x, 15, 18, 20–21, 27, 42, 44–45, 52, 69–70, 72, 74, 81–84, 87–88, 90, 92, 94, 97, 101, 103–5, 107, 121, 123, 125, 127, 141, 143–46, 148, 150–51; as a “city of migrants” ( yimin chengshi), 69, 127, 148; demographic changes in, 142, 148; map of, 17; migration in, 27, 143–46, 148, 150–51
Yinchuan Jing Xueyuan (Qur’anic Studies Institute), 83, 88, 125
Yongning County, Ningxia, 41, 107
Yunnan Province, xiv, 6, 12–13, 18, 39, 92, 136, 138, 159
Z
Zheng He, 11