INDEX
A
adultery, Jesuits accused of, 30, 193n121
Agnes of Rome (saint), 130–31
Ai house oratory, 120
Aleni, Giulio, 41; Expositions of the Sciences of the Psyche (1646), 126; Questions and Answers about the West (1637), 27, 83–84
almsgiving, support of China mission, 153–54. See also patronage by Chinese Catholic women
ancestor worship: centrality of, 187n5; integration into Catholic practice, 67, 122, 181n55; perpetuation of the patriline, 30; in wedding ceremonies, 71; women’s role in, 4, 55
Andersen, Jürgen, “Oriental Travelogue,” 38, 39fig.
annual letters, 10–11, 168n51, 206n38
antependium, commissioned, 140–41, 141fig., 212n14
anti-Catholic activities: Calendar Case (1664–69), 7, 63, 182n72; in families and communities, 118, 119–20, 182n70; Nanjing incident (1616–17), 7, 25, 50, 60–61
“apostalate through books,” 53, 180n35
Aquinas, Thomas. See Thomas Aquinas
architecture, Chinese residential, 32–33, 41
Aristotle, 24
Arnedo, Juan Antonio, 58
Asian Catholic communities, 155
Asian people, stereotypes of, 24
B
Ban Zhao, Lessons for Women, 79
baptism: and Chinese secret societies, 179n4; of concubines, 191n93; and polygyny, 81; Roman decisions about, 63; of women, 48–49, 60, 179n9, 179n15, 183n86, 185n102, 185n111
beards, 13, 26–27, 172n81, 172n84
Bellarmin, Robert, 52
Bettray, Johannes, 169n7, 180n35
bonze, use of term, 36, 175n25
Book of Changes, 74
Bornet, Paul, 211n36
boudoir, women’s, 33, 41–42, 43fig.
Brancati, Francesco, 84, 107, 117, 193n114
Bray, Francesca, 146
Brockey, Liam M., 110
Brook, Timothy, 144
Buddha: Amida, 39fig., 101, 198n15; “Cloth Sack,” 38, 39fig.
Buddhism: embroidery as devotional act in, 198n15; karmic retribution, 109–10, 203n83; piety and devotion in, 56; religious instruction, 180n27; spiritual practices of, 124
Buddhist bodhisattva. See Guanyin, son-granting
Buddhist communities: and early Catholic missions, 175n26; as models for women’s Catholic communities, 100–102, 198n11, 199n17, 199nn23,24
Buddhist monks: birth medicine of, 88; Confucian moralists’ suspicion of, 34–35; Jesuits’ adoption of monks’ robes, 13, 23–24, 36–37; Jesuits’ change of attitude toward, 37–38; trope of lecherousness, 38–40; visits with women, 49
Buglio, Ludovico, 149
C
Caballero de Santa María, Antonio, 59–60, 61–62
Calendar Case (1664–69), 7, 63, 182n72
Canevari, Pedro, 90
canon law on valid marriages, 76, 190n73
Canton “conference” and resolutions, 63–64, 70, 76, 78–80, 185n111, 185nn113,114, 186n116. See also rites controversy
catechists, female, 105–6, 147, 201n50
Catherine of Siena (saint), 124, 131, 208n73
Catholic identity, 17, 67, 107–8, 147–51. See also literati masculinity, Jesuits’ adoption of; matrilineal bonds in families
Catholic religious garments, 16, 17–18, 140fig.
Catholicism, global, 150–51, 152–56, 215n3, 215n60, 215nn63,64
Cattaneo, Lazzaro, 13
celibacy, 28, 29–31, 74, 173n102
ceremonial dress, 18fig., 20, 170n36
charitable societies, 100
charity and Catholic identity, 147–51. See also almsgiving
chastity: Buddhist practices and, 34–36; Chinese concepts of, 5, 34, 44, 128–31; Jesuit concept of, 31; misogyny’s role in promoting, 74; vows of, 128
chasuble, commissioned, 139–40, 140fig., 212n11
Chau, Adam Yuet, 165n9, 194n14
Chen, Petronilla, 132–33
Chen Houguang, 174n108
Cheng Dayue, Master Cheng’s Ink Garden (1606), 28–29, 91, 91fig.
child-granting deities, 87, 91–95, 98, 195nn28,29, 196n30
childlessness, 82, 83–84. See also patriline, perpetuation of
children, 50–51, 174n7, 179n21, 201n49. See also male offspring
Chinese Catholic ritual practice, 59, 183n84
Chinese Catholic women: as evangelizers, 51–52, 101–2, 120–22, 206n42; numbers of, 51. See also gentry women
Chinese Catholicism, impact of gender relations on: Chinese marriage, Christianization of, 67–86; Chinese society and Catholicism in the seventeenth century, 3–12; domestic convents, 128–37; female networks of Xu family, 113–27; Jesuits’ priestly responsibilities, 47–66; literati masculinity, Jesuits’ adoption of, 13–31; moral topography of China, 32–46; pious patronage of Chinese Catholic women, 138–51; reproductive disorders, spiritual remedies for, 87–98; women’s Catholic communities, 99–112
Chinese Catholics, numbers of, 56
Chinese festivals, 107
Chinese language study by missionaries, 22
Chinese literati: description of, 13–15, 17, 169n1; importance of refined material culture, 20; as intellectual elite, 22; obstacles to conversion, 80–86; polygyny as symbol of social status, 81, 82, 192n108; proper ritual, 22–23; sexuality of, 27–29, 85, 86. See also gentry families; literati masculinity, Jesuits’ adoption of
Chinese marriage, Christianization of, 67–86; addressing polygyny, 80–86, 191nn88,89; advice for husbands, 72–76, 188n40, 189n55; Chinese versus Catholic notions of marriage, 67–70, 114, 117–18; indissolubility of marriage, 76–80; wedding celebrations, 69–72, 187n22
Chinese masculinity, 24–25, 27–28, 171n66, 172nn72,73, 173n90. See also beards; literati masculinity, Jesuits’ adoption of
Chinese society in the seventeenth century: advent and installation of Jesuits in, 5–7, 167n30; geographical and social location of study of, 11, 168n53, 169n56; Ming and Qing cultures in, 5–6; self-examination in, 109; use of powerful objects and relics, 96 (See also sacramentals and relics); women in, 5, 7–9
Chinese symbolism, 139, 140, 141, 212n9, 212n14
Chinese texts and textual traditions: on marriage’s indissolubility, 79–80; use of by Jesuits for marriage and family advice, 73–74; use of by Jesuits to learn Chinese, 22
church buildings, sponsorship of, 143, 148
church visits, 107–8
Classic of Filial Piety for Women, 79
Clossey, Luke, 215n3
clothing as markers of status, 14–15. See also sartorial practices
Colombel, Auguste M., 205n30
communication with women, 50, 53–54
“communities of effective rituals,” 99, 198n6
concubines: and baptism, 191n93; dismissal of, 81–82, 86; effect on Catholic wives, 118; marriage with, 84, 192n93, 193n114; and preserving the patriline, 68, 192n108; repudiated concubines, 85
confessions and penance, 72, 108–9, 110, 124, 202n71
Confucian cultural orthodoxy, 34, 36, 128, 175n11
Confucian gender and family norms: “curtains and screens,” 33, 47, 49, 50, 54, 108; female piety, 55; filiality, 29–31, 34, 83, 130–31; flexibility of, 137; gender segregation, 5–6, 8, 32, 57 (See also female seclusion and modesty); inner/outer binary, 32–33; Jesuits’ attitudes toward, 62–63; perpetuating the patriline, 67–69, 83–84, 87, 114, 121–22; primary relations within the family, 75–76; and religiously motivated virginity, 128, 134; and travel, 148. See also Chinese texts and textual traditions; moral topography of China
Confucian literati. See Chinese literati
Confucius, Analects, 73
Confucius, the Chinese Philosopher (1687), 3, 22, 80
congregations. See men’s congregations; universal congregations; women’s Catholic communities
conjugal equality, 84–85
convents. See domestic convents; European gender norms and practices
conversion to Christianity: Chinese understanding of, 192n94; in groups, 101, 199nn23,24; versus loose affiliation with Christianity, 81; in situations of psychological stress, 89
coronae, 97, 186n2. See also sacramentals and relics
Cortes, Adriano de las, 45fig., 46, 178n79
Costa, Inácio da, 57, 107, 182n67
costume books, 15
Council of Trent, 6, 60, 68, 70
Couplet, Philippe: on almsgiving in local Catholic communities, 147–48; on approaching women, 36; on Candida Xu’s income, 146; catalog of church buildings, 143; on Chinese support of the church, 144, 151, 215n62; on the conversion of Xu Yuandu, 207n53; death of, 154; on dreams and visions, 209n78; on female seclusion, 41–42; on global Catholicism achieved by Candida Xu, 153; on letters from Candida Xu, 180n36; on marriages and conversion, 121; Story of a Christian Lady of China (1688), 3–4, 46, 114, 123fig., 125, 153, 165nn2,3, 165nn5,6; on Western objects as status, 21; on women receiving the sacraments, 108
courtesan culture, 45
“curtains and screens,” Confucian taboo of, 33, 47, 49, 50, 54, 108
D
Daily Exercises of the Holy Teaching, 116
Dehergne, Joseph, 198n1
devotional activities, 94fig., 118–20, 124–25, 135, 204n91, 212n6. See also Jesuits’ priestly responsibilities; Rosary, veneration of; women’s Catholic communities
devotional sororities, 111
Dias, Manuel, the Elder, 76, 84, 195n20; Plan of Studies, 22
Dias, Manuel, the Younger, 101, 179n21
divine intervention, 88–89, 93
divine retribution, 109
divorce, 68, 69, 72, 76, 78, 86, 189–90n62. See also marriage, indissolubility of
Doctrina Christiana, 52
domestic congregations, 102–3, 115, 200n31
domestic convents, 128–31, 132, 134–37
domestic realm of homes, 32–33. See also women’s Catholic communities
domestic religiosity: Chinese Catholicism as family religion, 122, 127, 154, 165n9, 211n1; homes as sites of devotional practice, 4, 12; women’s oratories, 56. See also oratories
domesticity in European society, 41
Dominican missionaries: attire of, 170n34; criticism of Jesuits, 59, 64; Fujian mission, 8, 106, 132–33, 134; support of, 213n24. See also Navarrete, Domingo
dowries and nuptial jewelry, 145
dreams and visions, 125–26, 209nn78,79, 209n81, 209n83
Duhr, Bernhard, 168n51
Dunyn-Szpot, Thomas-Ignatius, History of China, 125
Duteil, Jean-Pierre, 152
E
Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, 177n63, 178n67, 180n27
effeminacy, ascribed to Chinese men, 24–25, 171n67
European Catholic culture: Ignatian sacramentals, 95–96, 98; lay catechists, 106; Marian devotions, 93, 196; public nature of Catholicism, 154, 216n14; tertiary communities, 136; textiles and Catholic liturgy, 139; women, 144, 153
European gender norms and practices: chaste widows, 136, 204–5n13; childbirth, 198n55; cloistering women in convents, 8; domesticity in European society, 41; female patronage, 144, 153, 216n12; marriage advice, 73–74
evangelization: accommodation strategy for, 6; and attire, 16; mendicants versus Jesuits, 19–20; restrictions of social boundaries, 24, 171n65; use of material culture in, 21; of women, 48–54. See also under Catholic women; Xu, Candida
excommunication, 82
exorcism, 60
extreme unction, 59, 63, 177n63, 183nn86,87, 185n102
F
Faure, Jacques le, 125
female mystics, 209n78
female networks, 96–97, 111, 152, 193–94n3, 197–98n55. See also Xu family (Shanghai)
female seclusion and modesty: in Chinese weddings, 70; Confucian norm of, 5–6, 8; Jesuit interest in, 41–46; Jesuits’ access to women, 152, 215n2; peasant populations, 65; religious spaces, 55, 57; women’s appearance, 43–44. See also chastity
Ferreira, Gaspare, 51
fertility religion, 88
Figueredo, Rodrigo de, 136
filiality: versus Buddhist celibacy, 34, 42; and Catholicism, 122; Christian understanding of, 84, 174n108, 193n114; Confucian virtue of, 29–31, 68, 83, 117; marriage resistance and, 130–31. See also celibacy; marriage, indissolubility of
financial contributions to the church, 141–47, 213n21, 213nn24,25
Fontaney, Jean de, 57
footbinding, 43–44, 177n63, 177n65, 178n67
Four Books, 22
Four Books for Women, 79, 80, 191n82
Francis Xavier (saint), 6, 197n46
friendship, Jesuit notion of, 29
Furtado, Francisco, 135, 211n36
G
Gabiani, Giandomenico, 56–57
Geelhand family, 212n11
gender roles in Chinese culture, 33. See also Chinese Catholicism, impact of gender relations on
gender segregation, Confucian concept of, 32–36. See also female seclusion and modesty; Jesuits’ priestly responsibilities
gentleman, Confucian ideal of, 25–28, 29, 171n77
gentry families: eminent Catholic families, 206n31; female culture of, 113; house oratories of, 56; Jesuits’ close association with, 50; women’s sphere of influence in, 8–9
gentry women: as congregational leaders, 103–4, 111; culture centered on Catholic religion, 113; donations by, 143–44; influence in families, 8–9; leaders of domestic congregations, 104; literacy of, 53, 168n43; as the only focus of the Jesuits’ proto-ethnographic descriptions of Chinese women, 44–45; research on, 114; spirituality of, 122–26; travel of, 148–49. See also Xu, Candida; Xu, Felicitas; Xu, Martina; Xu, Monica; Xu family; Yu, Flavia; Zhao, Justa
Gernet, Jacques, Chine et christianisme (1982), 7–8
global Catholicism, 150–51, 152–56, 215n3, 215n60, 215nn63,64
“God of Voluptuousness,” 38, 39fig.
Golden Legend, 130–31
gown and cap (yiguan), 15
Great Learning, The, 73, 188n36
Great Ming Code (legal text), 35
Greslon, Adrien, 38, 143, 206n33
Guanyin, son-granting, 88, 91–92, 92fig., 101, 194n10, 195nn28,29, 198n15
Guerreiro, Fernão, 49
H
Han Lin, 189n61
Han self-representation, 33
Hangzhou birth miracle, 97, 198n57
Hangzhou domestic convent, 134–37, 136
Hangzhou oratories, 58
hats, 20
heterodoxy, Chinese concepts of, 34, 82, 128, 130
Holy Mother. See Virgin Mary
Holy Mother’s churches. See women’s churches
I
idolatry, 40, 59–60, 71, 90, 101, 103
Ignatius of Loyola (later, saint), 6, 16, 90, 95–97, 98, 196–97n43, 197nn47,48, 197n53
immorality in Buddhist temples, rumors of, 36–40
immortality, 109
Index of Prohibited Books, 66
inner/outer binary, Confucian, 32–33. See also female seclusion and modesty; gender segregation; yin and yang
intermediaries, use of in evangelization, 50–52, 53, 180n26
Intorcetta, Prospero: Canton resolutions, 185n114; “On Chinese Marriages,” 77; sacrament of confession, 108; selection of Chinese priests, 19; validity of Chinese marriage, 78–80, 190n71
J
Japan, mission to, 36
Jensen, Lionel, 176n34
Jesuit identity: balancing literati identity and evangelical work, 47–48, 66 (See also Jesuits’ priestly responsibilities); with Confucian elite, 40, 176n46; literati effeminacy versus masculine self-identity, 25; through the literati robe, 16–20. See also Catholic identity; literati masculinity, Jesuits’ adoption of
Jesuit mission in China, organization of, 6–7, 54, 167n30. See also literati masculinity, Jesuits’ adoption of
Jesuit missionaries, writings of, 9–12
Jesuit residences, 20–21
Jesuits’ priestly responsibilities: evangelization of women, 48–54; sacraments and the rites controversy, 59–66; tension between literati identity and evangelism, 66; women’s religious spaces, 54–59, 66
Jiangnan region: as center of Catholicism, 113, 168n52; description of, 11; textile production in, 146, 214n44; women of, 53
jinshi, 172n78
Jversen, Volquard: “Oriental Travelogue,” 38, 39fig.
K
“kingdom of women,” trope of, 34
Kircher, Athanasius, China Illustrated (1667), 42, 43, 43fig., 177n62
Ko, Dorothy, 148
L
labor, gendered division of, 4, 146–47, 150
Laimbeckhoven, Gottfried-Xaver von, 140–41
Laven, Mary, 167n37, 171n66, 173n90
lay leaders, 105–6, 107, 111, 200n37
Li Can, 173n103
Li family (Hangzhou), 113
literati masculinity, Jesuits’ adoption of, 13–31, 155, 168n42; effect on access to women, 35, 152; idolatry and immorality, 40; Jesuit adoption of literati lifestyle, 20–24; performance of, 24–31, 171n67; social identity through the literati robe, 13–20, 169n7
liturgical garments, 20
Longobardo, Niccolò: accusations against, 30; baptism of women, 48–49, 174n105, 179n9; on concubines’ abstinence, 85, 193n122; evangelization of women, 50; first female converts, 55; papal dispensations, 193n123; on title for Virgin Mary, 92–93
lower-class women, 33, 45fig., 180n26
M
Magalhães, Gabriel de, 42, 44, 68–69, 149
male offspring, 30, 90–95, 194n3
male relatives, 49–50, 53–54, 148–49, 179nn14,15, 185n102
Manchus, 16, 17, 45, 171–72n67, 178n76
maritime trade, 6
marriage, 31, 69–70. See also Chinese marriage, Christianization of
marriage, companionate, 75, 189n61
marriage, indissolubility of, 76–86, 190n67. See also divorce
marriage resistance, 130, 209n6, 210n10
marriages, mixed, 52, 71–72, 86, 117–22, 187n15
Martini, Martino, 21, 29, 62–63, 105, 135
Masakazu, Asami, 186n122
masculinity. See Chinese masculinity; literati masculinity
Mass, reading and hearing, 58–59, 72, 135. See also church visits
material culture, 20–21
matrilineal bonds in families, 117–22, 127, 204n11
Mencius, 30
Mendez, Pascal, 54
mendicant missionaries: arrival in China, 7; and Canton resolutions, 63; compared to Jesuits, 19, 170n34; criticism of Jesuit practice, 3, 21, 59–60, 71, 188n27; extent of evangelistic influence, 65; as sorcerers, 170n35. See also rites controversy
men’s congregations, 100, 110–12, 199n23, 203n84, 203n89
Miao, Maria, 132–33
miracle tales, 93, 97, 106, 196n34, 197n53, 198n57
misogyny, 31, 74–75, 189n52, 189n55
Missions Étrangères de Paris, 8
modesty, female. See female seclusion and modesty
Monks and Nuns in the Sea of Sin (1620s), 40
Monteiro, João, 101, 119, 206n38
moral topography, definition of, 175n23
moral topography of China, 32–46; female seclusion and modesty, 41–46; gender segregation, 32–36; immorality in Buddhist temples, 36–40, 176n37
Morales, Diego, 186n122
Morales, Juan Bautista, 59–60, 61–62
morality and polygyny, 81–82
N
Nadal, Jerónimo, Images of the Story of the Gospel (1593), 94
Nanjing domestic convent, 135–37
Nanjing embroidery workshop, 141
Nanjing incident (1616), 7, 25, 60–61
Navarrete, Domingo, 64, 76, 78, 185n115
Nieuhof, Johan, 178n76
Nobili, Roberto de, 170n27
nomina, 53, 95, 96, 196nn41,42. See also sacramentals and relics
O
obstetrics, ritual, 88
oratories: domestic congregations in, 103–4, 111; donations to, 147; of elite gentry families, 115, 181n47; house oratories, 54–56, 57–59; in poor households, 181n55
orthopraxy (zheng) and Confucian cultural orthodoxy, 34, 175n11
P
Pallu, François, 63–64, 185n115
Pan women’s congregation, 120
Pantoja, Diego, 31, 45, 82, 83
papal dispensations, 52, 59, 71, 85, 184n88, 187n15, 193n123
patriline, perpetuation of, 67–69, 114, 121–22, 192n110. See also childlessness
patronage by Chinese Catholic women: charity and Catholic identity, 147–51; Chinese female patronesses, 138–44; motivations and resources for, 144–47
Paula (maidservant), 133
Paula of Fuzhou, 133–34
physical contact, avoidance of, 33, 59, 60, 62–63, 64
piety, communal, 111. See also women’s Catholic communities
piety, women’s. See Confucian norms and traditions; domestic religiosity; female seclusion and modesty; gender segregation; patronage by Chinese Catholic women
Plum in the Golden Vase (1618), 40, 89
polygyny, 69, 72, 77, 80–86, 191nn88,89
portraits, commemorative, 67
Portuguese Padroado (patronate), 7, 10, 166n27
Portuguese presence in Asia, 6
prayer meetings, 104–5
premarital sexuality, 188n32
priesthood, admission of Chinese Catholics to, 18–19
priestly rituals in women’s devotions, 107–10. See also Jesuits’ priestly responsibilities
promiscuity, Buddhist, 40
Propaganda Fide, 62, 63–64, 78, 166n27, 184n88
Protestant evangelism, 181n55
Q
Qu Rukui, 13
R
relics. See sacramentals and relics
religiosity, efficacy-based, 89–90, 97–98, 194nn14,15
religious instruction: Congregation of Angels, 121; by female catechists, 105–6, 180n27; images and devotional objects, 53–54; on marriage, 72–76; through prayer meetings, 105; texts for, 52–53; Xu women, 119
religious patronage, motivations and resources for, 144–47
religious pluralism, 89, 118, 155
religious spaces, 36–37, 54–59. See also Buddhist temples; oratories; women’s churches
remarriage, 72, 74–75, 190n79, 210n26
reproductive disorders, spiritual remedies for, 87–98; overview of, 87–90, 194n4, 194n12; praying for sons, 90–95; sacramentals and relics, 95–97
residences. See architecture, Chinese residential; Jesuit residences
Ricci, Matteo: accusations against, 30, 173–74n103; adoption of Chinese social practices, 23, 171n61; attire and appearance of, 13, 14, 17fig., 26; on Buddhist temples, 37; on Chinese literati, 24–25, 28–29; on Chinese veneration of the Virgin Mary, 90; on Confucian norms and traditions, 44, 54, 193n114; on evangelization of women, 48; On Friendship (1599), 29; on Jesuit and literati moral virtue, 16; Jesuit residences in China, 7, 179n8; justification of celibacy, 30–31, 174n108; on Luca’s commemorative portrait, 67; on the maintenance of oratories, 103; Outline of the Teaching of the Lord of Heaven (1605), 52; Portuguese-Chinese dictionary, 88; on the social status of concubines, 82; Sodom, story of, 173n96; True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (1603), 28, 30
rites controversy, 59–66, 184nn90,91, 185n104; ancestral rites, 187n5; European view of China mission, 3, 7
ritual communities, 99
ritual polytropy, 89
ritual specialists, 19, 47, 81, 179n4
Rituale Romanum (1614), 59
rituals, role of in China, 22–23
Rocha, João da, 48, 179n8, 179n14, 208n70; Rules for Reciting the Rosary (1619), 93–94, 94fig., 124, 212n9
Rodriguez, Jerónimo, 212n9
Roman College of the Society of Jesus, 78, 190n73
Roman Curia, 58, 59, 62, 63, 64, 65, 184n90, 188n27
Rosary, veneration of, 53, 67, 122–23. See also under Rocha, João da
Rougemont, François de, 21, 142–43, 145
Rubens, Peter Paul, 18fig., 170n29
Rubino, Antonio, Apology of [Our] Way of Proceeding, 65, 66, 186n122, 186n124
Ruggieri, Michele, 6–7, 36–37, 88, 176n28
S
sacramentals and relics: Catholic sacramentals, 95–97, 194n16, 195n21, 197n53; coronae, 97, 186n2; holy images, 197n51, 208n73; nomina, 53, 95, 96, 196nn41,42; relics, 196n36, 196n43; veronicae, 53
sacraments, administration of, 58, 183n83, 202n60. See also church visits; rites controversy
sagehood, Chinese ideals of, 26, 27, 172n73
Saldanha, Manuel de, 138–39
Sambiasi, Francesco, 102, 110, 136
Sangren, P. Steven, 200n37
sartorial practices, 14–20, 170n27, 177n62
Schall von Bell, Johann Adam, 7, 18, 19fig., 63, 197n43
seclusion. See female seclusion and modesty
Semedo, Alvaro, 24, 41, 42, 44, 70–71, 77, 82–83
servants, 20, 51, 67, 83, 115, 170n40, 179n23, 205n25
sexuality. See celibacy; Chinese literati: sexuality of; immorality in Buddhist temples, rumors of; premarital sexuality
Shen Que, 25, 60, 61, 173–74n103
Shi Bangyao, 30
silk production by Chinese Catholic women, 135, 146
Silva, Feliciano da, 65
Sima Guang, 32–33
social class boundaries, 15–16, 23–24, 169n18, 171n65
social etiquette, 20, 22–24, 171n61
social order and disorder, 32–34
social status, 14–15, 21, 81–82, 85, 169n9, 192n108
Society of Jesus: attitude toward women, 134; Chinese Catholics’ loyalty to, 151; Chinese lay brothers, 18; evolution of literati masculinity, 14; female patronage of, 144; overseas missions of, 6; sartorial flexibility of, 16, 170n25; women’s religious institutions and, 8
Sodom, story of, 173n96
Soeiro, João, Abridged Record of the Holy Scriptures of the Lord in Heaven (1606), 52
Sommer, Matthew, 204n13
Song Geng, 172n73
Songjiang, 119, 121, 146, 147, 207n54
spiritual purity, 129–30
spiritual remedy, use of term, 194n14. See also reproductive disorders, spiritual remedies for
spirituality of gentry women, 122–26
Standaert, Nicolas, 51, 180n26, 183n84
stereotypes of Asian people, 24
suicide, female, 44
sumptuary laws, 15
Sun family (Jiading), 113, 115, 124–25
symbolism. See Chinese symbolism
T
talented scholar, 27–28, 173n90
Tanyangzi (religious virtuosa), 137
Taoist practices, 109, 137, 199n16
temple bans, 35
Temple of the Holy Flower, 36–37, 176n28
textile production, 139, 146–47, 214n42, 214n44
textiles, embroidered, 94fig., 138–41, 140–42fig., 145–46, 212n6, 212nn9,11, 212n14
Thomas Aquinas, 76
Tong, Agatha, 81, 139, 143, 145, 148, 213n21
travel to missions, women’s, 58, 183n81
Tridentine reforms, 8, 68, 106, 134, 136, 183n83, 201n49, 216n16
Trigault, Nicolas: on anti-Christian repressions, 50; on the baptism of women, 48; ceremonial dress, 18, 18fig., 170n29; on communication with women, 51, 53–54; and the dispute regarding valid marriages, 190n73; on the influence of literati, 24; on Jesuit interactions with women, 35; seeking a compromise regarding concubines, 85
U
uniformity of dress, Jesuits’, 16, 17–18
universal congregations, 104
urbanization’s impact on Chinese culture, 5, 15
Ureman, Johannes, 172n84
V
Vagnone, Alfonso: Biographies of the Saints (1629), 124, 129–31, 129fig.; Biography of St. Ignatius (1629), 96; Biography of the Holy Mother (1631), 93, 94–95, 196n36; Government of the Family in the West (ca. 1625–30), 31, 69, 72–75; Short Explanation of the Doctrine (1615), 52; yin and yang, 189n46
Valignano, Alessandro, 6, 13, 37
vegetarianism, 101, 109, 199nn16,17
Verbiest, Ferdinand, 21
veronicae, 53. See also sacramentals and relics
Virgin Mary, 90–95, 91fig., 94fig., 98, 124, 195n24, 195nn28,29
virginity: Christian notions of, 128; criterion for sainthood, 210n8; religiously vowed, 117, 129–30, 132–34, 135–36; virgins in China, 132–34, 210n17, 211n36. See also chastity
Vitiello, Giovanni, 29
W
Wang Zheng, 82
Ward, Haruko Nawata, 206n38
Water Margin (14th c.), 40
wedding celebrations, 69–72, 187n22
Wen Zhenheng, 21
Western literati, 13, 15–16, 18
widowhood and power, 120, 136, 145–46. See also Yang, Agnes
widows, chaste, 115, 136, 204n13, 207n50, 210n26, 211n42
Wolf, Margery, 193n3, 202n57, 204n11
women, physical contact with, 33, 59, 60, 62–63, 64, 69
women and power, 120, 135, 204n11. See also widowhood and power
women’s Catholic communities: Buddhist models for, 100–102, 199n23, 199n24; conception of, 99–100; differences with male religious communities, 110–12; leadership and devotions in, 102–6, 201n43; role of church-based, priestly rituals, 107–10, 203n75
women’s churches, 56–57, 115, 139, 147, 181n47, 182n67, 182nn69,70, 182n72
women’s dress and appearance, 43, 177n60, 177n62
women’s quarters, 33, 41–42, 43fig., 177n59
X
Xu, Candida: baptism of sons, 206n42; as benefactress, 143–44, 148, 207n53, 213n21, 213nn24,25, 214n39, 215n60; devotional activities of, 108, 115–16, 119, 123, 123fig., 125, 208n73; documentation of Christian names, 205n30; dreams of, 125, 209n81; emotional bonds with sisters, 118; as evangelizer, 105–6, 121, 148–50; global Catholicism, 151, 153; income of, 145–46; knowledge about, 46, 53, 114, 180n36; as leading Catholic, 3–4, 121; and marriage, 117–18, 206n30, 206n33
Xu, Felicitas, 117–18, 120, 125, 205n30, 206n34, 208n73, 209n79
Xu, Martina, 117–18, 120, 205n30
Xu, Monica, 117–18, 124, 125, 205n30, 208n73
Xu Changzhi, Collection Destroying Heresy (1639), 174n103
Xu Congzhi, 60–61
Xu Dashou, 61
Xu family (Shanghai), 113–27; description of Xus, 113–17; grandchildren of Xu Guanqi, 204nn6,7, 205–6nn30,31; matrilineal ties, 117–22; nature of their spirituality, 122–26
Xu Guangqi, 25–26, 113–14, 172n78, 204n6, 208n70
Xu Guangqi Memorial Hall, 115
Xu Yuandu (husband of Candida Xu), 120, 207n53
Xu Zuanzeng, Basil, 119, 120, 148–50
Xujiahui area, 115. See also women’s churches; Xu family (Shanghai)
Y
Yang Ching Kun, 175n11
Yang family (Hangzhou), 113, 139
Ye Mengzhu, 15
You Wenhui (Manuel Pereira, painter), 17fig.
Yu, Flavia, 116
Z
Zhao, Justa, 143, 148, 149, 213nn20,21
Zheng Xuan, 79
Zhong, Anna and Maria, 55
Zhuhong of the Yunqi monastery (Zen master), 39