NOTES
Foreword
1. See Mintz, Sweetness and Power, for the classic Caribbean account of this process.
2. See Haraway, “Anthropocene.”
3. See Brown, The Reaper’s Garden.
4. See Trouillot, Peasants and Capital.
5. McNeill and Engelke, The Great Acceleration.
Introduction
1. In this book I rely heavily on Vincent Brown’s discussion of predicament and slavery in The Reaper’s Garden.
2. Scarborough, The Flow of Power.
3. See Rasmussen, Andean Waterways; and Swyngedouw, “Modernity and Hybridity.”
4. Mintz, Sweetness and Power.
5. I draw considerable inspiration from Saidiya Hartman’s Scenes of Subjection and her discussion of social death. See also Nixon, Slow Violence. Violence is more thoroughly discussed in chapter 3.
6. For scholars examining the relationship between capitalism and the environment, see Haraway, Staying; Moore, “The Capitalocene”; and Tsing, “On Nonscalability.” For scholars looking at slavery and governance in colonial settings see Brown, The Reaper’s Garden; Bryant, Rivers of Gold; Dawdy, Building the Devil’s Empire; Delle, The Colonial Caribbean; Higman, Montpelier; and Singleton, Slavery Behind the Wall.
7. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth; McKittrick, “Plantation Futures”; Wynter, “Novel and History”; Haraway, Staying, f5.
8. This phrase is borrowed from Tsing, The Mushroom, 3.
9. Wynter, “Novel and History.”
10. I borrow this formulation from Elizabeth DeLoughrey’s “Yam, Roots, and Rot.”
11. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth.
12. Wynter, “Novel and History,” 99.
13. My use of alternative geography is indebted to McKittrick, “Plantation Futures.” Tsing, “A Threat,” 54.
1. Hamilton, Scotland, 117.
2. McDonald, “Sex, Power, and Slavery.”
3. Slave Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, 300 Africans in the hold of the vessel embarked at Gambia. Of the 278 that disembarked in Dominica, 174 were men, 98 were women, and 16 were children.
4. See S. Campbell, “Africans to Dominica.” See Slave Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database. According to the database, by the year 1779, 50 percent of all human beings had been transported to the Americas.
5. A. Smith, An Inquiry.
6. Carretta, Phillis Wheatley.
7. Sensu A. Agrawal’s “Environmentality,” 16. Everyone who stood in relation to land and its resources was what he would call an environmental subject, that is, someone for whom the environment “constitutes a critical domain of thought and action,” where ecological priorities are part of matrices of power.
8. Evans and Rydén, Baltic Iron.
9. Antczak, Antczak, and Antczak, “Risky Business.”
10. Mrozowski, Hayes, and Hancock, “Archaeology of Sylvester Manor.”
11. Cranstone, “From Slitting Mill to Alloy Steel.”
12. For review, see Scheid, “Political Economy of Ceramic Production.”
13. Finley and Shaw, Ancient Slavery.
14. J. Miller, Problem of Slavery.
15. J. Handler and Lange, Plantation Slavery in Barbados.
16. Orser, An Archaeology.
17. Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, 3. Patterson defines slavery as “one of the most extreme forms of the relation of domination, approaching the limits of total power from the viewpoint of the master, and of total powerlessness from the viewpoint of the slave.”
18. Cameron, “Captives and Culture Change.”
19. Battle-Baptiste, “Sweepin’ Spirits,” 88, 92; Wilkie, “Culture Bought”; Fennell, “Group Identity”; Ferguson, Uncommon Ground.
20. Sayers, Desolate Place; Hauser, Archaeology of Black Markets; T Weik, “Archaeology of Maroon Societies in the Americas”; TM Weik, Archaeology of Anti-Slavery Resistance.
21. Pearson, Archaeology of Death and Burial.
22. Harrod and Martin, “Bioarchaeological Case Studies of Slavery”; Blakey “Bioarchaeology”; S. Agrawal “Biomorphologies.”
23. Blouet, “Interpretations of Burial and Commemoration.”
24. D. Armstrong and Fleischman, “House-Yard Burials”; Corruccini et al., “Osteology of a Slave Burial”; Courtaud et al., “Le Site D’anse Sainte-Marguerite “; Schroeder, Haviser, and Price, “The Zoutsteeg Three”; Watters, “Mortuary Patterns.”
25. Brown, “Social Death,” 1249.
26. Brown, “Social Death.”
27. Beckles, “An Economic Life of Their Own”; Mintz, Caribbean Transformations.
28. Tomich, “Une Petite Guineé.”
29. W. K. Marshall, “Provision Ground and Plantation Labour.”
30. Brown, “Social Death,” 1249.
31. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 59, 10.
32. Hauser and Hicks, “Colonialism and Landscape,” 267.
33. I am referring here to the work of critical geographers such as Kenneth Olwig and Don Mitchell. See Mitchell, “New Axioms”; Olwig, “Recovering.” See also Richard, Reluctant Landscapes, 19.
34. Brown, Reaper’s Garden.
35. Williams, “Structures of Feeling,” 129.
36. Burnard, Mastery, Tyranny, and Desire.
37. Morrison and Hauser, “Risky Business.”
38. J. Handler and Wallman, “Production Activities in the Household Economies.”
39. Tomich, “Une Petite Guineé,” 89.
40. There is a large body of scholarship on these systems beginning with Mintz and Hall, Origins of the Jamaican Internal Marketing System, 57. For a review, see Hauser, Archaeology of Black Markets.
41. Delle, Colonial Caribbean.
42. DuTertre, Histoire Générale, 3, 515.
43. Moitt, Women, 55.
44. Debien, Les Esclaves, 184.
45. Debien, “La Nourriture,” 14.
46. Gibson, “Domestic Economy”; Wallman, Kelly, and Berard, “Slave Community Food Ways.”
47. Hauser and Kelly, “Colonies.”
48. Sheridan, “Domestic Economy.”
49. Mulcahy, Hurricanes, 80.
50. Mr. Grove to Mr. Leslie, 19 May 1789 BNA: CO 71/8
51. Governor Orde to Sydney, 19 May 1789 BNA: CO 71/8
52. Orde to the Privy Council, BNA: BT 6/41, 205–11
53. Papers Presented to the House of Commons, 19.
54. Cracknell, Dominica, 33. Grains including sorghum, maize, and rice were cultivated by enslaved laborers in Martinique, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Surinam. Carney, Black Rice.
55. Parliament, Papers Presented to the House of Commons, 19.
56. Parliament, Report of the Lords of the Committee, no 10.
57. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 26.
58. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 75v.
59. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 122v.
60. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 92.
61. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 66.
62. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 131.
63. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 155.
64. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 168v.
65. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 122v.
66. M. Franklin, “The Archaeological Dimensions of Soul Food”; Wallman, Kelly, and Berard, “Slave Community Food Ways“; Yentsch, Chesapeake Family.
67. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 108.
68. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 108.
69. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 108.
70. See Morrison and Hauser, “Risky Business.” The phrase is borrowed from Ó Gráda, “The Ripple that Drowns?”
71. Wolf and Mintz, “Haciendas and Plantations.” In 1957, Wolf and Mintz note that Canamelar “was characterized by a large modern ‘factory in the field.’”
72. Robbins and Marks, “Assemblage Geographies.”
73. Moore, “Capitalocene.”
74. T. Mitchell, Rule of Experts, 51.
75. Li, Lands End, 17.
76. Haraway, Companion Species Manifesto, 1.
77. Nordin, “Metals of Metabolism.”
78. Ingold, “One World”; Deleuze and Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus.
79. Bauer and Bhan, Climate without Nature, 4.
80. Haraway, Staying, f5.
81. Haraway, Staying, 206.
82. Tsing, “A Threat,” 54.
83. De León, Land of Open Graves; Dawdy, “Taphonomy of Disaster”; Schiffer, Formation Processes.
84. For a review of this work, see Honychurch, Archaeology in Dominica.
85. K. Bakker, “The ‘Commons’”; Rasmussen, Andean Waterways.
86. Rasmussen, Andean Waterways, 5.
87. Hauser, Archaeology.
88. Kelly et al., “Compositional Analysis.”
89. Trouillot, Peasants and Capital, 27–32.
90. I borrow this phrase from Li, “Beyond ‘the state.’”
91. For the most recent review of this work see Ryzewski, “Thorny Endeavor.”
92. D. Armstrong and Fleischman, “House–Yard Burials.”
93. Pattullo, Your Time Is Done Now.
94. Bell, “Report”; McKusick, “Aboriginal Canoes”; Ober, Camps in the Caribbees; Rennard, “Les Caraïbes”; Taylor, “Caribs”; Taylor, “Tales and Legends.”
95. Berard, “‘South-Dominica’ Archaeological Mission”; Boomert, “Searching”; Honychurch, Archaeology of Dominica; S Lenik, “Carib as a Colonial Category”; Shearn, “Pre-Columbian Settlement.”
96. J. Boromé, Aspects.
97. Pérotin-Dumon, La Ville Aux Iles.
98. Honychurch, Dominica Story.
99. Ingram, Manuscripts.
100. Black, Archival Development.
101. Ford and Ford, A Guide.
102. Higman, “Sugar Revolution.”
103. Welch, “Synthesis.”
104. Trouillot, Peasants and Capital.
105. Watts, West Indies, 8.
106. Girault, “Recherches De Géographie,” 70; Richardson, Caribbean; Wood, Trinidad in Transition, 101.
107. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, 53.
108. For a functional definition, see Orser, “On Plantations and Patterns”; Orser, “Archaeological Approaches.”
109. Mintz, “Houses and Yards,” 10.
Chapter 2
1. Priestley, Directions for Impregnating Water, 310–11.
2. Schwalbe, “Landscapes of Movement,” 3.
3. For the concept “indigenous frontier,” see Li, Land’s End.
4. For “First Nature,” see Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis.
5. Shearn, “Pre-Columbian Settlement.”
6. Schubert and Szabo, “Uranium-Series Ages.”
7. Rochefort, History of the Caribby Islands, 277.
8. Berard, “‘South-Dominica’ Archaeological Mission.”
9. Wadge, “Morne Patates.”
10. Nijland and El Guindi, “Crop Yields.”
11. A. Armstrong, “Effect of Drainage.”
12. Rudd and Chardon, “Effects.”
13. Cooper and Peros, “Archaeology of Climate Change”; Hofmann and Hoogland, “Beautiful Tropical Islands.”
14. Keegan, “Lucayan Settlement Patterns,” 5.
15. Toscano and Macintyre, “Corrected Western Atlantic.”
16. Wilson, Iceland, and Hester, “Preceramic Connections.”
17. Cooper, “Climatic Context.”
18. Rouse, Migrations in Prehistory.
19. Napolitano et al., “Reevaluating Human Colonization.” Trinidad contains the earliest site, occupied ca. 5950 BCE, when the island was most likely attached to the South American mainland, (Tankersley et al., “Geochronology”). Charcoal, believed to be the result from anthropogenic fires, was recovered from lake core sediment and places early occupation of the island ca. 3650 BCE (Siegel et al., “Paleoenvironmental Evidence”). Barbados also contains an early site occupied sometime between 3280 and 2940 BCE (Fitzpatrick, “Verification”).
20. Callaghan, “Ceramic Age Seafairing.” Archaeologists have criticized this later model for its overreliance on models with a series of assumptions about past behavior, and failure to explain early dates in the Eastern Caribbean—see Ross et al., “Faces Divulge.”
21. Siegel et al., “Paleoenvironmental Evidence.”
22. Pantoja, García, and Díaz, “El Fenómeno.”
23. Curet et al., “Evidence of Major Flooding.”
24. Cooper, “Fail to Prepare.”
25. Samson et al., “Resilience.”
26. Petitjean Roget, “Notes.”
27. Arrom, “Creation Myths.”
28. Oliver, “Proto-Taino,” 251.
29. Traditionally, they have viewed continuities and discontinuities through the lens of migration. Here, archaeologists view technological innovations, social and political changes, and shifts in worldview as the result of the influx of new peoples or “cultures” (Rouse, Migrations in Prehistory). Similarities and differences in decorative inventories, shapes of vessels, and foodways equated to changes in the population who used them. Take the term “Saladoid.” According to scholars emphasizing migration, these pottery-producing people replaced an Indigenous group of people who relied heavily on maritime foodstuffs and are known by a material culture assemblage that includes spearpoints fashioned from bone, animal teeth worn as jewelry, and stone tools used as net weights, grinding stones, and choppers (Keegan and Hofman, Caribbean; D. Davis, “Archaic settlement”). They were replaced by a second wave of pottery-producing migrants (Troumasoid) who left the Orinoco basin and colonized the Lesser Antilles between 600 CE and 1200 CE (Bright, Blood Is Thicker). Potters on these densely occupied islands began to produce ceramics following similar recipes of manufacture and repertoires of design, but with detectable localizations in technique and style (Hofman et al., “Island Rhythms,” 253).
30. Wilson, Archaeology of the Caribbean, 175
31. Bright, Blood Is Thicker, 110.
32. Boomert, “The Cayo complex.” This evidence relies on one of the ingredients potters added to the matrix of the clay to ensure more successful firing. This is the burned bark of the South American ‘kwepi’ tree (Sp. licania). This tree, while indigenous to South America, is not found in the Windward Islands.
33. Raleigh, Sir Walter Ralegh’s Discoverie, 326–27.
34. Boomert, “Cayo Complex,” 12.
35. Hofman et al., “Island Rhythms.”
36. Anonymous, An Answer; Douglas et al., A Letter; B Franklin and Jackson, Interest; Jefferys, West Indies; Jefferys, Natural and Civil History.
37. Breton, Dictionnaire Caraïbe-Français. There is a 1666 companion volume, Dictionaire Francois-Caraibe.
38. See Hulme, Remnants of Conquest, 45–46.
39. Breton, Dictionnaire Caraïbe-Français.
40. Breton, Dictionnaire Caraïbe-Français, 292.
41. Laffoon et al., “Long-Distance Exchange”; Ramos, Rethinking; Ramos, Pagán-Jiménez, and Hofman, “The Humanization.”
42. Hofman et al., “Stage of Encounters.”
43. Boomert, “Amerindian–European Encounters.” In 1593, one Spanish official complained that Amerindians in Trinidad were bartering with French and English privateers—providing tobacco, among other things, for knives and trinkets.
44. J. Handler, “Aspects of Amerindian Ethnography.”
45. Hulme, “Meditation on Yellow.”
46. Breton, Dictionnaire Caraïbe-Français, 191.
47. Oliver, Caciques.
48. Petitjean Roget, “Les Petroglyphes.” See also Groom, “Rock Art Management.”
49. Petitjean Roget, “Notes,” 105.
50. Cited in Hofman and Hoogland, “Beautiful Tropical Islands,” 112.
51. Hofman and Hoogland, “Beautiful Tropical Islands,” 109.
52. Scarborough and Lucero, “Non-Hierarchical Development.”
53. Wittfogel, Oriental Despotisim, 12.
54. Swyngedouw, “Modernity and hybridity”; Brite, “Hydrosocial Empire.”
55. Boelens et al., Hydrosocial Territories.
56. Brite, “Hydrosocial Empire,” 124.
57. Brite, “Hydrosocial Empire,” 125. See also Ingold, “Toward an Ecology.”
58. Here I paraphrase Edgeworth, Fluid Pasts, 19.
59. Deetz, In Small Things Forgotten.
60. Harrower, Water Histories.
61. Lucero and Fash, Precolumbian Water; Scarborough, Flow of Power.
62. Morehart and Morell-Hart, “Beyond the Ecofact.”
63. Scarborough, Flow of Power, 117.
64. Morehart, “Mapping Ancient Chinampa.”
65. Mintz, Sweetness and Power.
66. Morrison, “Archaeologies of Flow”; Bauer and Morrison, “Water Management.”
67. McIntosh, Ancient Middle Niger.
68. Carney, Black Rice, 57.
69. Rostain, Islands.
70. Rostain, “Agricultural Earthworks.”
71. McKey et al., “Pre-Columbian Agricultural Landscapes.”
72. Pagán-Jiménez, “Human-Plant Dynamics.”
73. Broodbank, Making, chap. 2; Knappett, Evans, and Rivers, “Modelling Maritime Interaction”; Stahl, “Colonial Entanglements.”
74. Hofman et al., “Island Rhythms.”
75. See Broodbank’s discussion of the Mediterranean as an assemblage of winds and currents, topography, biota, and landmasses that is neither deterministic in human history nor is unimportant in its unfolding (Making, chap. 2).
76. Mrozowski, “Colonization.”
77. Chouin and Lasisi, “Crisis and Transformation.”
78. Law, “Slave-Raiders,” 222–24.
79. Law, “Slave-Raiders,” 213–17.
80. Edgeworth, Fluid Pasts, 96.
81. Labat, Nouveau Voyage, v.
82. Taylor, Caribs, 141–42
83. Murphy, “Creole Archipelago,” 33, fig. 32; Labat, Memoirs, 140–42; Labat, Nouveau Voyage, 100, 122.
84. Murphy, “Creole Archipelago,” 33, fig. 32; Rochmonteix, Le Père, 77.
85. Mintz, Sweetness and Power, 185–86.
86. Robin, Everyday Life Matters.
87. Zedeno, “Animating by Association.”
88. Zedeno, “Animating by Association,” 408.
89. Escobar, “After Nature,” 6.
90. Stedman, Narrative, 457, 655.
91. For an alternative explanation, see Espenshade, “A River of Doubt.”
92. Joseph, “‘. . . All of Cross.’”
93. Nicholls, Report on Yaws, 73.
94. Nicholls, Report on Yaws, 73.
95. Lennox Honychurch, personal communication, September 27, 2018.
96. Nicholls, Report on Yaws, 40.
97. Slavery Images: A Visual Record
98. Mills, “Communities.”
99. Mills, “Communities,” 249.
100. Roth, Tea drinking, 225, 73.
101. Quinlan, “From the Bush,” 76.
102. Quinlan, “From the Bush,” 114.
103. Ranston, Belisario, 262.
104. Ranston, Belisario, 262.
105. Arcangeli, “For Water, Food, Tables and Health,” 190–200.
106. Ranston, Belisario, 264.
107. J. Handler, “Diseases.”
108. Nickolls, Letter, 17.
109. Atwood, History, 257.
110. Coleman, “Dripstones.”
111. Sloane, Voyage, x.
112. Victor, La Poterie.
113. Allsopp, Dictionary, 260.
114. Smaller vessels were also circulating. The monkey jar, characterized by a spout, handle and lid, is similar to a vessel called le krish, made by contemporary potters in St. Lucia (see Vérin, “Quelques Aspects,” 467). Michael Scott uses one of the first appearances of the term in English to describe this porous earthenware: “the Monkey of cool water” See, M Scott, Tom Cringle’s log.
115. J Fryer, A new account, 47. See Oxford English Dictionary.
116. A Vieyra, A Dictionary, 1.
117. See Bueze for an example of colonial ceramics L-R Bueze, “La Potterie.” and Carraze for an example of old world antecedents, F Carrazé, Kantis.
118. In the more recent past, some communities produced ceramics so well known for their relative evaporative qualities that their wares were sought after in global economies. Tonalá bruñida ware, made in Jalisco, Mexico, became particularly valued in Europe for its ability to cool water and make it sweet to the taste (see Voss, “Status and Ceramics”).
119. Cook and Bakker, “Water Security.”
Chapter 3
1. In reference to the epigraph that opens this chapter, when sugar cane was ripe, enslaved workers cut it by hand with curved knives called cane bills and loaded the stalks onto oxcarts. In 1745, the Reverend William Smith commented, “During crop time they work night and day almost incessantly” (A Natural History of Nevis, 232). Quicklime was produced by the crushing and burning of coral and shell, found in the reefs near the island shore.
2. Nicholson, Dictionary, 22.
3. Mintz, Sweetness and Power.
4. Moore, “Sugar and the expansion.”
5. For a review of this debate, see Logan, Scarcity Slot, 22.
6. For a review, see Cook and Bakker, “Water security.”
7. Brown, Reaper’s Garden; Burnard, Mastery, Tyranny, and Desire; Dubois, Avengers.
8. Nixon, Slow Violence, 2.
9. Here I draw on Hall, Hirsch, and Li, “Introduction to Powers of Exclusion.”
10. Breton, Father Raymond Breton’s Observations, 1.
11. Hulme and Whitehead, Wild Majesty, 81–82.
12. Hulme, Colonial Encounters, 246.
13. Atwood, History of the Island of Dominica., 221.
14. Hauser and Armstrong, “The Archaeology of Not Being Governed.”
15. Murphy and Hauser, “Dominica as an Evolving Landscape.”
16. S. T. Lenik, “Frontier Landscapes”; Murphy and Hauser, “Dominica as an Evolving Landscape.”
17. Hauser, “The Infrastructure.”
18. DNA Grants, Leases and Conveyances B N. 1 #40. Units were recorded as three quarrés and two quarrés, respectively. This French unit of measure varies significantly, but in eighteenth-century Antilles it was approximately equal to 3.2 acres.
19. Murphy and Hauser, “Dominica as an Evolving Landscape.”
20. See S. T. Lenik, “Frontier Landscapes”; Murphy and Hauser, “Dominica as an Evolving Landscape.”
21. J. Boromé, “The French and Dominica.”
22. ANOM DPPC, G1/498, Recensement de l’Isle de La Dominique de Année 1730; ANOM DPPC, G1/498, Recensement de l’Isle de La Dominique de Année 1731; ANOM, DPPC, G1/498, Dénombrement General de l’Isle de La Dominque; Susiant Les Quartrers . . . 1743; ANOM, DPPC, G1/498, Dénombrement L’Isle Dominique pour l’année 1745; ANOM, DPPC, G1/498, Récapitulation Générale de L’isle Dominque pour l’année 1749; DPPC, Recensement Général de l’Isle de La Dominique 1753. Joseph Borome notes that there is an error in the 1753 Recensement related to coffee production, see Borome, Aspects, 97.
23. See Murphy and Hauser “Dominica as an Evolving Landscape,” 35 ANOM DPPC, État Civil, Le Prêcheur, July 29, 1821.
24. A farina house is a structure where the tuber is grated, soaked, and drained. The subsequent matter is ground and baked on cast iron pans to create a stable flour. This flour could then be used in a porridge or made into a hearty bread. This process borrowed from the centuries-old method developed by Indigenous peoples throughout the Caribbean Basin. It increased the capacity of the technique by employing slave labor and regimenting the process.
25. Murphy and Hauser, “Dominica as an Evolving Landscape.”
26. “Agriculture et économie rustique – Sucrerie et affinage des sucres” (Diderot, Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire).
27. Hall, “Land Grabs,” 839. For English treatise on husbandry, see Ligon, True and Exact History; Robertson, Supplement to the Detection; Hughes, Natural History of Barbados; Belgrove and Drax, Treatise Upon Husbandry.
28. Tarlow, Archaeology of Improvement, 12.
29. Tarlow, Archaeology of Improvement, 87.
30. I rely on Kalyani Menon’s definition of dissonant subjects as those who transgress norms of a social movement (“Dissonant subjects”).
31. Tarlow, Archaeology of Improvement, 81.
32. Bryant, Rivers of Gold, 7.
33. Bryant, Rivers of Gold, 32.
34. Bryant, Rivers of Gold, 29.
35. Brewer, Sinews of Power.
36. Young, Considerations.
37. Anderson, Crucible of War.
38. Hall, “Land Grabs.”
39. Honychurch, Dominica Story.
40. Murdoch, “Land Policy.”
41. Pensom, Colonial Agents.
42. A. Johnson, “Passage,” 507.
43. Brewer, Sinews of Power.
44. Byres, “Plan of the Island”; Byres, References to the Plan.
45. Young, Considerations, 19.
46. Young, Considerations, 16.
47. Murdoch, “Land Policy,” 556.
48. Anonymous, North‐American and the West‐Indian Gazetteer, 87.
49. Murdoch, “Land Policy.”
50. Young, Considerations, 37.
51. Young, Considerations, 39.
52. This island, in Young’s estimation, was comparable in geography and potential to St. Vincent and Dominica. Young argued that Grenada’s “soil produces a sugar of most excellent quality. It is well watered with rivulets and abounds with good provision grounds for the negroes, which save a considerable expense to the planters in their maintenance.” A fourth potential of the island was the presence of a well-forested and mountainous interior. This, he argues, is “on the whole an advantage, not a defect; for although there are some objections too great an inequality in their surface, and to large tracts of wood, yet as they contribute to insure rains and fertility, and to produce rivers, they are very beneficial in these climates” (Considerations, 31).
53. Young, Considerations, 32.
54. Young, Considerations, 32.
55. Young, Considerations, 36.
56. Young, Considerations, 43.
57. Young, Considerations, 43.
58. Young, Considerations, 47–48.
59. Young, Considerations, 43.
60. Young, Considerations, 47–48.
61. Murphy, “Creole Archipelago.”
62. Sivaramakrishnan, Modern Forests, 35.
63. ANOM DPPC, G1/498, Recensement de la Colonie pour la population et la culture de Année 1785.
64. DPPC, Recensement Général de L’isle De La Dominique 1753; Parliament, Papers Presented to the House of Commons, 119.
65. Baker, Centering the Periphery.
66. “Returns of Produce given in under General Tax Bill 1827” Dominica Almanac and Register.
67. Parliament, Papers Relating to Her Majesty’s Colonial Possessions, 52, 144.
68. Morris, Report, 122–23.
69. Hall, “Land Grabs,” 840.
70. Higman, “Sugar Revolution,” 229.
71. For examples, see D. Armstrong, Old Village and the Great House; Clement, “Settlement Patterning”; Delle, Archaeology of Social Space; Hicks, “Garden of the World”; Meniketti, Sugar Cane Capitalism; Ryzewski and Cherry, “Struggles of a Sugar Society.”
72. Delle, “Power and Landscape”; Singleton, Slavery behind the Wall.
73. Cossin and Hauser, “Sugar Economics.”
74. Singleton, Slavery behind the Wall.
75. Delle, Archaeology of Social Space.
76. Morrison, “Rethinking Intensification,” 236.
77. For review, see Bolender, “From Surplus Land to Surplus Production.”
78. Meniketti, Sugar Cane Capitalism.
79. Higman, Slave Populations.
80. J. Handler, “Plantation Slave Settlements”; Higman, Jamaica Surveyed.
81. As a cost-saving measure, planters soon began to use “coppers” made of iron. Marco Meniketti used the number of coppers as a proxy for the volume of sugar produced (“Sugar Mills,” 60). Therefore, a boiling house that had three coppers produced less sugar and molasses than a seven-copper boiling house (Meniketti, “Sugar Mills,” 75).
82. Atwood, History of the Island of Dominica, 284.
83. Niddrie, “Eighteenth-Century Settlement,” 72.
84. Edgeworth, Fluid Pasts, 109.
85. I borrow this term from Edelson, Plantation Enterprise, 24.
86. Kosiba and Hunter, “Fields of Conflict,” 40.
87. Wells et al., “Agroindustrial Soilscapes.”
88. Ellis, Historical Account of Coffee, 42.
89. Ellis, Historical Account of Coffee, 25–26.
90. Young, Considerations, 32.
91. Moreton, West India Customs, 44.
92. Moreton, West India Customs, 44.
93. Edwards, History of the British Colonies, 221.
94. Colthurst, Colthurst Journal.
95. Salisbury, “Engaging with Soil,” 25.
96. Salisbury, “Engaging with Soil,” 27.
97. Salisbury, “Engaging with Soil,” 27.
98. Atwood, History of the Island of Dominica., 81.
99. Atwood, History of the Island of Dominica., 80.
100. Jefferys, The Natural and Civil History, 80.
101. Jefferys, The Natural and Civil History, 83.
102. Jefferys, The Natural and Civil History, 83.
103. Atwood, History of the Island of Dominica, 95.
104. Atwood, History of the Island of Dominica, 95.
105. BNA CO 71/10. Letter, 17 April 1786, Alex Stewart and Thomas Beech to the King.
106. Hauser, “Everyday Economies and Ecologies.”
107. As Kathleen Morrison argues, to use measures “of what we presume to be the consequence of intensification,” such as complexity, population, or productivity, is an example of confirmation bias (“Rethinking Intensification,” 237).
108. D. Armstrong and Kelly, “Settlement Patterns.”
109. Higman, Montpelier.
110. See Miller et al., “Telling Time”; for a detailed analysis of methodology, see Chenoweth and Farahani, “Color.”
111. See Kelly, “La Vie Quotidience”; Walthall, “Faience”; Waselkov and Walthall, “Faience Styles.”
112. See Bates, Galle, and Neiman, “Building.”
113. Miller, “Revised.”
114. Wilkie and Farnsworth, Sampling.
115. Honychurch, “Slave Valleys.”
116. Benoît, Corps, Jardins, Mémoires.
117. Debien, Les Esclaves; J. Handler, “Plantation Slave”; Higman, Jamaica Surveyed.
118. See Hauser, “Political Ecology.”
119. T. Davis, Agricultural Water Use. A study documenting water usage in the Niger and Chad basins found that one hectare of sugar cane required 55,000 m3 of water, as opposed to rice (31,000 m3), wheat (21,000 m3), and vegetables (18,000 m3).
120. Browne and Blouin, Chemistry of the Sugar, 276.
121. Porter, Nature, 252.
122. DNA Grants, Leases and Conveyances E.N. 1 1775, f. 258.
123. Saunders and Warford, Village Water Supply.
124. Higman, Slave Populations, 385.
125. Higman, Slave Populations, 68.
126. Papers Presented to the House of Commons, 19.
127. These equations estimate a single individual’s daily requirement is somewhat variable and is dependent on size, diet, daily exertion, and climate. Estimates for individual daily requirements range from two liters per capita per day to five liters per capita per day. See Saunders and Warford, Village Water Supply; Vivanti, “Origins.”
128. Deerr, Sugar.
129. Colthurst, Colthurst Journal, 245–47.
130. Colthurst, Colthurst Journal, 251.
131. J. Handler, “Plantation,” 135.
132. Watts, West Indies, 8, 196.
133. Galle, “Costly Signaling.”
134. Debien, Les Esclaves, 232.
135. Hauser, “Political Ecology,” table 2.
136. BNA CO 71/10. Letter, 17 April 1786, Alex Stewart and Thomas Beech to the King.
Chapter 4
1. Riviere, “Bittersweet Childhoods,” 43.
2. K. Bakker, “The ‘commons.’”
3. Dunaway, Gendered Commodity Chains.
4. Peterson, “Rewriting (Global) Political Economy,” 14.
5. Tabak and Crichlow, Informalization.
6. Dawdy, Building the Devil’s Empire. Shannon Dawdy describes the relationship between New Orleans and the metropole as an example of “rogue colonialism”: the entanglement of factions including agents, criminals, and low-status individuals, whose interests traditionally would compete in the metropole, and who rely on diverse economic networks to ensure the colony’s success. Importantly, it was New Orleans’ multiple trade networks that materialized “the Mississippi-Caribbean World” (102). Smuggling and piracy were so ubiquitous that the city became “a de facto port of free trade” (224).
7. Stoler and Cooper, “Between Metropole and Colony.”
8. VanValkenburgh and Osborne, “Home Turf.”
9. M. Smith, “Networks,” 846.
10. A. T. Smith, Political Landscape, 22.
11. Edelson, New Map of Empire.
12. Pedley, “Map Wars.”
13. Harley, “Bankruptcy of Thomas Jefferys.”
14. Young, Considerations, 8.
15. Cain and Hopkins, “Gentlemanly Capitalism.”
16. Greene, Peripheries and Center.
17. Tarrade, Le Commerce, 12.
18. Clément, “English and French Mercantilist Thought,” 304.
19. Butel, Histoire, 51.
20. Goebel, “‘New England Trade,’” 332.
21. Goebel, “‘New England Trade,’” 343.
22. Tomich, Slavery, 160; Pérotin-Dumon, La Ville Aux Iles.
23. Pérotin-Dumon, “Cabotage,” 66.
24. Clapham, “Last Years.”
25. Pitman, Development, 221.
26. Sheridan, “Molasses Act,” 63.
27. Sheridan, “Molasses Act,” 64.
28. “Acts of the Assembly Passed in the Island of Barbadoes,” 303. Cited in Sheridan, “Molasses Act,” 68.
29. Pitman, Development, 228.
30. Sheridan, “Molasses Act,” 69.
31. Sheridan, “Molasses Act.”
32. Pitman, Development, 242.
33. I use Britain to designate metropolitan interests after the “Act of Union” in 1707.
34. Armytage, Free Port System, xx.
35. P. Thomas, “First Rockingham,” 139.
36. B. Marshall, Slavery.
37. Hunt, “Contraband, Free Ports, and British Merchants.” Chief among these was Prime Minister Charles Watson-Wentworth, Marquess of Rockingham.
38. Christelow, “Contraband Trade,” 311.
39. Stein, French Sugar, 76.
40. BNA, CO 76/4–6. In some years, the contents of cargo, ship names, or the flags they carried were illegible. This alters our picture of trade and its change over time. All told, in these years I documented 2,808 arrivals carrying an estimated 430,000 tons of goods in the hold.
41. For example, a sloop could range anywhere between 12 and 50 tons, and a ship could range from 500 to 850 tons.
42. Sheridan, “Commercial and Financial Organization,” 251.
43. BNA Shipping Returns, CO 76/4–8. Numbers are estimated based on itineraries documented with goods recorded in the hold.
44. A. T. Smith, Political Landscape, 10.
45. A. T. Smith, Political Machine.
46. Tagliacozzo, Secret Trades.
47. S. Campbell, “Africans to Dominica.” Some of these laborers were transshipped to other Caribbean Ports in Louisiana, Cuba, and Martinique. See Kastor and Weil, Empires, 209.
48. Karras, “Caribbean Contraband.”
49. Karras, “Caribbean Contraband,” 251. See also Karas Smuggling, 8 for a discussion of contraband in Dominica.
50. Between 1807 and 1809, seventeen American and French vessels were captured along with their cargo as prizes. They carried a much broader array of goods, though in smaller quantities, intended to supplement diets, furnish households, build furniture, process cloth, and to adorn oneself. Neutral nations could provision islands in desperate need of goods by taking advantage of near-incessant warfare between France, Britain, and Spain.
51. Studies of smuggling in the region relying principally on the documentary record have focused on several themes, but are especially well represented in three important studies. On the British side, Francis forms the foundation of studies exploring “the colonial policy” and its afterlife in the late eighteenth century. See Armytage, Free Port System, xx. Lance Grahn has looked at smuggling as one of the linchpins of colonial economies in the Caribbean Basin (see The Political Economy of Smuggling). The agents of this trade form the focus of Linda Rupert’s discussion of a more “bottom-up” perspective on the coastal trade that made the eighteenth-century Caribbean work (see Creolization).
52. Young 2nd, Account, 55.
53. Hofman et al., “Colonial Encounters.”
54. Lafleur, Les Caraïbes, 235. Gérard Lafleur used baptismal, marriage, and burial records to document the presence of mixed communities populating the small inlets in and around Guadeloupe. For example, on the small island of Christophe in the Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, a pastor baptized a “Carib” Magdeleine in 1749. She was the daughter of Magdeleine, “Caraïbesse,” and Nicholas, “Caraïbe” and her godparents were “Jean Pierre, a Negro of Mr. Bermingham,” and “Magdeline, free mulattres.” In 1756, a son of a petit blanc and a Kalinago woman, Jean-Baptiste Cheron, was baptized on la Désirade. In 1786, Thérésine, the daughter of two “carahibes” from nearby keys in Petit Cul-de-Sac, was buried in the Parish cemetery in Petit-Bourg in Guadeloupe.
55. Debien, Les Esclaves, 60.
56. Dubois, Colony of Citizens, 200; Pérotin-Dumon, La Ville Aux Iles, 49.
57. BNA, CO 71/23, Orde to Dundas, 13 June 1792.
58. BNA, T1 434/134.
59. BNA, CO 71/8, Mr. Grove to Mr. Leslie, 19 May 1784; BNA, BT 6/41, ff. 205–11, John Orde to the Board of Trade, 1 September 1787.
60. DNA, Acts of the Privy Council, March 1790 Minutes.
61. DNA, Acts of the Privy Council, March 1790 Minutes.
62. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 132.
63. McCusker, “Money,” 5–6.
64. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Joe, N.1.”
65. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 107v.
66. Bush, “Slave Women.”
67. Resident, Sketches, 243.
68. Hauser, Archaeology.
69. Bayley, Four Years’ Residence, 61. According to his obituary, Bayley was a soldier who served in the Peninsular War and at Waterloo. In 1825, he was ordered to serve in Barbados, where he wrote the account from which the text was extracted. “Obituary,” 324.
70. Abénon, La Guadeloupe; Pérotin-Dumon, “Commerce Et Travail”; Schnakenbourg, Histoire.
71. Klooster, Illicit Riches; Pérotin-Dumon, “Cabotage.”
72. Honychurch, In the Forests.
73. Atwood, History, 226.
74. Pattullo, Your Time Is Done Now.
75. Pattullo, Your Time Is Done Now, 63.
76. Pattullo, Your Time Is Done Now, 90.
77. Pattullo, Your Time Is Done Now, 69.
78. Pattullo, Your Time Is Done Now, 92.
79. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 65.
80. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 66.
81. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 119.
82. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 122v.
83. Atwood, History, 261.
84. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 267.
85. Price, “When Is a Calabash Not a Calabash?”
86. Price, “Always Something New,” 21.
87. Breton, Dictionnaire Caraïbe-Français, 49, 261.
88. Hauser, “Political Ecology of Water.”
89. Bain et al., “Landscape Transformation”; Oas and Hauser, “Political Ecology of Plantations.”
90. G. Miller, “Marketing Ceramics in North America.”
91. Losier, “Approvisionner Cayenne”; Avery et al., “French Faience”; Waselkov and Walthall, “Faience Styles.”
92. G. Miller, “Revised Set of CC Index Values.”
93. Wilkie, “Culture Bought.”
94. Wilkie, “Culture Bought,” 12.
95. Petrucci, “Les Poteries.” Jean Ferdinand Petrucci, in a thesis completed in 1999, documented the history of pottery manufacturers in Vallauris By the mid-eighteenth century, an orange slip was introduced, and the potters made the vessels with a flatter rim and a straighter sides, though the base continued to be round (6–8). This form was followed by a straight-sided marmite with a red slip at the turn of the nineteenth century. The vessel was also made into small toys and saucepans (9–11). Importantly, what this means is that on an archaeological site occupied from the 1720s to the 1830s, connected to the peripheral flows of the eighteenth century, one would expect Vallauris pottery that is considerably varied in shape and decoration.
96. In Guadeloupe, Vallauris cooking pots were recovered from several sites in Basse-Terre. Heather Gibson documented over 5,500 sherds, making it the most numerous coarse earthenware. In Martinique, controlled excavations at Crève-Coeur also recovered a large quantity of Vallauris-type ceramics. Their distribution extends as far north as St. John, USVI (Hauser and Kelly, “Colonies without frontiers”). They have also been found as far south as Grenada (Hauser, Hofman, and Martin, Report of Work Done). .
97. Trendell, Her Majesty’s Colonies, 367.
98. Ober, Guide, 361.
99. Taylor, “Caribs,” 140.
100. “Debates in Parliament,” 247.
101. Jeremie, “More Facts,” 42. Pierre Vérin remarked of that community over 120 years later, “The ‘Caribs’ of La Pointe are probably to a certain extent, the descendants of Martinique Caribs who resettled St. Lucia in the 17th Century” (“Carib Survivals,” 40).
102. Yvon and Cassagrande, “La Production.”
103. R. Campbell, London Tradesman, 184, 272.
104. Chapelot, “Le raffinage”; Normand and Pauly, “Archéologie Et Raffinage”; Ravoire and Renel, “Note Sur Des Céramiques.”
105. C. M. Brooks, “Aspects.”
106. In 1787, the sloop Lydia arrived from Antigua carrying twenty-five feet of lumber, six kegs of nails, and one hundred “Sugar Drips.” In 1801, the sloop Prince arrived from Martinique carrying one drip.
107. Hauser, “Routes and Roots”; Bloch and Bollwerk, “Sourcing Coarse Earthenware.”
108. Stahl, “Colonial Entanglements,” 840.
109. Inda and Rosaldo, “Tracking Global Flows,” 25.
110. I. Bakker, “Social Reproduction.”
111. Heath, “Yabbas.”
112. Fennell, “Group Identity.”
113. Ferguson, “‘The Cross Is a Magic Sign.’”
114. Hauser and DeCorse, “Low-Fired Earthenwares.” Time and evidence have led me to soften my position and see a third way to understand why these forms were so ubiquitous. Familiarity with the documentary record, ethnographic accounts, and personal experience have given me a chance to ask perhaps more nuanced questions.
115. Hauser, Archaeology.
116. Hauser, “Routes and Roots.”
117. By 1750, a combination of town planning, including paved streets, stone and brick housing, and a number of local statutes related to drainage, rubbish removal, water provision, and new hospitals had shown a decreased death rate in England (Buer, Health, Wealth and Population). Naval and civilian physicians began to pay careful attention to hygiene and fresh potable water (Haines and Shlomowitz, “Explaining the Mortality Decline,” 272).
118. Arcangeli, “For Water, Food, Tables and Health,” 190–200.
119. Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 45.
120. Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 145.
121. J. Handler, “Diseases,” 18–25.
122. J. Handler, “Diseases,” 15.
123. Sloane, Voyage.
124. Labat, Nouveau Voyage, v, 330.
125. Arcangeli, “For Water, Food, Tables and Health,” 484.
126. Losier, “Bouteilles Et flacons.”
127. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 95.
128. Coleman and Porter, “The So-Called ‘Spanish Jars.’”
129. Victor, La Poterie, 31.
130. Amouric and Vallauri, Biot, Jarres, 65.
131. Arcangeli, “For Water, Food, Tables and Health,” 213.
132. Kelly et al., “Compositional Analysis.”
133. Arcangeli, “For Water, Food, Tables and Health,” 203.
134. Brongniart, Description Méthodique, 1.
135. Arcangeli, “For Water, Food, Tables and Health,” 231.
136. Hauser, “Political Ecology of Water.”
137. GLC, GLC02542.32.15.
138. GLC, GLC02542.32.15, 2
139. GLC, GLC02542.32.15, 1
140. Anonymous, “West Indian News,” 171.
141. Anonymous, “West Indian News,” 259.
142. GLC, GLC02542.32.15, 1
143. Arcangeli, “For Water, Food, Tables and Health,”
1. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 50v.
2. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 51.
3. In a personal communication to Jerome Handler, Steven Behrendt located an Old King George at Old Calabar in the Bight of Biafara, in present-day Nigeria. According to the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, between 1788 and 1789, nineteen voyages were made from the Bight of Biafra to Dominica. Of these seventeen vessels, six purchased slaves at Calabar, and three took on cargo slaves at New Calabar. Only one vessel makes a repeat stop to Dominica: the Ned, captained by John Spencer.
4. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 51.
5. J. S. Handler, “Custom and Law.”
6. Morris, Southern Slavery.
7. J. S. Handler, “Custom and Law.”
8. Mintz and Price, Birth of African American Culture, 43.
9. Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. “Belonging, N.”
10. Garraway, “Race.”
11. Battle-Baptiste, Black Feminist Archaeology.
12. Beaudry, “Households beyond the House”; M Johnson, English Houses; Leone, Archaeology of Liberty; Loren, “Creating Social Distinction”; Voss, “Poor People.”
13. See M Johnson, Housing Culture. He notes that during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in England, there was a process of “closure,” involving new taxonomies of domestic space that coincided with a complex of cultural and social changes. Flexible interior spaces, typified by the medieval open hall, were increasingly segmented into rooms associated with particular charges. As an aesthetic predicated upon the enclosure of inside spaces, the house became a physical boundary from the outside, “natural” space.
14. Honychurch, “Chatoyer’s Artist.”
15. Kriz, Slavery, 53.
16. Kriz, Slavery, 38.
17. S. Thomas, “‘On the spot.’”
18. Tobin, Colonizing Nature, 15. Sarah Thomas notes that like an ethnography, these paintings produce an account of colonial society. See Thomas, “On the Spot.”
19. Tobin, Colonizing Nature, 17; See also Honychurch, “Chatoyer’s Artist.”
20. Tobin, Colonizing Nature, 12.
21. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 160.
22. Kriz, Slavery.
23. Garraway, “Race.”
24. de Saint, Description Topographique, 1. According to Doris Garraway, this classification was based on an earlier one established by Hilliard d’Auberteuil (see “Race,” 239).
25. Garraway, “Race,” 240.
26. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 77v.
27. DNA, Triennial Slave Register, 1817, St. Mark’s Parish.
28. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 107v.
29. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 107v.
30. Bush, “Slave Women.”
31. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 107v.
32. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 107v.
33. M. Johnson, English Houses.
34. Green, “Evolution of Jamaican Architecture,” 100.
35. Long, History of Jamaica, 2, 515.
36. Long, History of Jamaica, 2, 515.
37. Resident, Sketches, 71.
38. Resident, Sketches, 239.
39. Cossin and Hauser, “Sugar Economics.”
40. Neave operated through his Roseau-based attorney, John Nelson. As a powerful London merchant, Neave was a director of the Hudson’s Bay Company and the Chairman of the West India Merchants. In 1763, he joined the Bank of England, and between 1783 and 1785 was its governor (Clapham, The Bank of England, 197). His social and professional networks brought him in constant interaction with absentee planters, who held properties in St. Kitts, Nevis, and Antigua. Neave would have understood the social capital and prestige that accompanied owning a West Indian sugar estate, and purchasing an estate in Dominica was one such way for social advancement in London (Johnston, Stapleton Sugar Plantations, 199).
41. Debrett, Baronetage of England, 263.
42. Longin, Voyage, 43–44. Félix Longin (1787–1822) visited Guadeloupe between 1816 and 1822. His observations, eventually published in 1848, describe some of the masonry repertoires: “In Guadeloupe, people build with hard, greyish, rounded stones that are found in large quantities at certain places on the shoreline, or riverbeds. . . . These rocks, held by mortar made of volcanic sands and lime are very solid.”
43. DNA Grants, Leases and Conveyances T N.2. In 1806, the same estate owner purchased a small house in St. Pierre for 10,000 livres, which matched the description of dwelling houses found on coffee estates, DPPC NOT MAR, Notary Landais, St. Pierre, 1806.
44. Pérotin-Dumon, La Ville, 426; Arcangeli, Sherds of History.
45. Resident, Sketches, 59.
46. Resident, Sketches, 59.
47. Resident, Sketches, 60.
48. Harris, “Morne Patate House Yards.”
49. Mintz, Caribbean Transformations.
50. D. Armstrong, Old Village.
51. Harris, “Morne Patate House Yards.”
52. Heath and Bennett, “‘The Little Spots Allow’d Them,’” 38.
53. For a more detailed discussion of the botanical assemblage recovered from Morne Patate, see Oas and Hauser, “Political Ecology.”
54. Wallman and Oas, “An Environmental Archaeology.”
55. Resident, Sketches, 60.
56. Higman, Slave Populations, 369. The triennial slave register and other documents tended only to list the biological mother, meaning the biological father might be unnamed. This pattern is seen in the early years of the sugar revolution and is repeated in its waning years, after the beginning of the triennial slave register.
57. DNA, Trienneal Slave Register, 1817, St. Mark’s Parish.
58. Murphy and Hauser, “Dominica as an Evolving Landscape,” footnote 2.
59. Bates, Galle, and Neiman, “Building an Archaeological Chronology.”
60. Samford, Subfloor Pits, 9.
61. Samford, Subfloor Pits, 141.
62. Resident, Sketches, 71.
63. Bates, “Surplus and Access.” Bates found that land size and tenure of provision grounds had significant effects on status. While the areas for surplus production were poor relative to the cane fields, variation between estates in conditions and observable artifact attributes indicate the investment in ceramic vessels based on cost.
64. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 172.
65. Resident, Sketches, 71.
66. Battle-Baptiste, “Sweepin’ Spirits,” 88, 92.
67. Brown, Reaper’s Garden, 31.
68. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 271.
69. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 272.
70. Resident, Sketches, 71.
71. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 271.
72. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 114.
73. Wari, also called mankala, is a type of board game that shares attributes of accounting (Townshend, “African Mankala”). It is often played with a block of wood with cups or holes carved out of it. Pieces are advanced in order to capture all or some set of the opponent’s pieces. In some cases, it can be played in holes dug or scooped out the earth JS Handler, “Gizzard Stones.”
74. For two examples, see de Voogt, “The Comoros”; and Herskovits, “Wari.”
75. Bates, Galle, and Neiman, “Building an Archaeological Chronology.”
76. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 71.
77. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 248.
78. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 72.
79. Young, 2nd, “A Tour through Several Islands” 62.
80. JC Scott, Weapons, 349.
81. McKittrick, “Plantation Futures”; See Li, “Beyond ‘the state,’” 383, for “situated knowledge.”
82. Benson and Clay, Dominica, app. 2.
83. General Report, 2, 359 (Letter from J. P. Lockhart to the Governor); Harris, “A Hard Kind of Freedom.”
84. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 66. See Oas and Hauser, “Political Ecology,” 6; and Parry, “Plantation and Provision Ground.”
85. Oas and Hauser, “Political Ecology,” 6; Higman, Jamaican Food, 198.
86. Oas and Hauser, “Political Ecology,” 7; Higman, Jamaican Food, 204.
87. Carney and Rosomoff, In the Shadow, 138.
88. Oas and Hauser, “Political Ecology,” 7.
89. For a discussion in Jamaica, see Higman, Jamaican Food, 174–75.
90. Innis, “Efficiency.”
91. Innis, “Efficiency,” 21.
92. McGregor, “Investigation.”
93. Carney, “Fields,” 72–73.
94. Carney, “Fields,” 72.
95. Higman, Jamaican Food, 229–32.
96. Chickens, cows, pigs, and other animals are represented in West Indian foodways, and they have a functional role as well. Feeding animals would be a way of converting excess maize from a garden into protein and dairy. Up until the 1830s, Jamaican slaves were hesitant about eating goat; rather, goats were kept for the “purpose of supplying milk” (see Higman, Jamaican Food, 391).
97. GR Brooks, “Analysis of Prey Consumed.”
98. Wallman, “Negotiating the Plantation.”
99. Escobar, “After Nature.”
100. Reeves, “Archaeological Case Study.”
101. Pezzarossi, “Camouflaging Consumption,” 153.
102. For data pertaining to this discussion, see Hauser, “Political Ecology of Water,” 239, table 3.
103. Oas and Hauser, “Political Ecology.”
104. When entire houseyards of enslaved laborers were excavated at Sugarloaf and Bois Cotlette, we can estimate that there were approximately two goglets per houseyard in the regimented villages of Sugarloaf and Boise Cotlette (see Hauser, “Political Ecology of Water”).
105. DNA, Grants, Leases and Conveyances ON.1 251–59.
106. Ranston, Belisario, 264.
107. Ranston, Belisario, 262.
108. Hardly unique to Latin America’s humoral theory, a healthy body is conceptualized in a state of balance between hot and cold. Illness is a result of imbalance between these (see Bougerol, La Médecine; Bougerol, “Logique De L’excès.” Hot or cold substances can be applied (oils, water, etc.) or consumed (foods of particular qualities) to rebalance bodily humors. Everyday practices such as bathing outdoors can be seen as a healthy habit (see Benoît, Corps, 175).
109. Quinlan and Quinlan, “Eating and Healing.”
110. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 60.
111. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup. These are mention on pages 104, 104v, 22v, 118, and 172, respectively.
112. UA, MS 2070, Journal of Jonathan Troup, 66.
113. Hearn, Two Years, 382.
114. Hearn, Two Years, 224.
115. Archaeologists have suggested that artisans who share habits and conventions through social networks compose a community of practice (Roddick, “Scalar Relations”). Archaeologists have employed this concept widely, but not exclusively, to organize evidence about pottery manufacture and explain how it passes from one community to the next in time or space (Stark, “Glaze Ware Technology,” 25.
116. Kiple, Caribbean Slave, 145.
117. Mrozowski, Franklin, and Hunt, “Archaeobotanical Analysis”; Tilley and Schrenk, “Introduction”; Wilkie, Archaeology of Mothering.
118. Reifschneider, “Enslavement and Institutionalized Care.”
119. J. Handler and Bilby, Enacting Power.
120. Cited in J. Handler and Bilby, Enacting Power, 33.
121. Cited in J. Handler and Bilby, Enacting Power, 81.
122. Edwards-Ingram, “African American Medicine.”
123. J. Handler and Bilby, Enacting Power, 40.
124. Weiner, Inalienable Possessions, 33.
125. See Sally Price, “When is a Calabash not a Calabash,” for meaningful distinctions between gourds and calabash.
Epilogue
1. For Resilience, See Conolly and Lane, “Vulnerability, Risk and Resilience.” Archaeologists working in other times and places have shown that interdependency and resilience, the ability to accommodate the unexpected, are inversely correlated. See Redman and Kinzig “Resilience of Past Landscapes.”
2. See Honychurch, In the Forests of Freedom.
3. Ellens, “Tracing the Postemancipation.”
4. Harris, “Hard Kind of Freedom”; Honychurch, “Slave Valleys.”
5. J. A. Boromé, “Crown Colony,” 30.
6. Richardson, Igniting, 74.
7. Cited in Richardson, Igniting, 95.
8. Cited in Richardson, Igniting, 95.
9. Bell, Glimpses, 27.
10. Hulme, Remnants, 26.
11. F. Richard, Reluctant Landscapes.
12. Meskell and Preucel, “Knowledges.”
13. Lane, “Possibilities,” 260; Logan et al. “Usable Pasts.”
14. See Dunnavant et al., “Assessing Heritage.”