Index

A
Adams, Samuel, 131
administrative documents and record keeping, 121–27
American Revolution, 131, 136
An Chŏngbok, 67; spiral letter from Yun Tonggyu, 62fig.
An Pangjun, 89, 90
An Suuk, 41
Anderson, Benedict, 185
Andong: charter for Samgye Academy, 168; scholars from, 124, 133–34, 148, 155, 171; twentieth-century joint memorial presentation, 190–92. See also Tosan Academy
Andong State School, 132fig., 133–34, 171–72
annotation, 81–82, 90–93, 117–19
anthologies, 78–79, 81; of T’oegye’s letters, 83–85, 95–97, 108; of Zhu Xi’s letters, 77–84, 87–91, 93–94, 117–19, 189, 228n63
archives as place of absence, 38–39
Augmented and Supplemented Reading of Vernacular Letters (Chingbo ŏn’gandok), 34–35
Austen, Jane, 51, 62, 217n85; crossed letter to her sister, 51fig.

B
Bible, translation into vernacular Korean, 68
Bible Women, 68
board games, 56–57, 58fig.
Bol, Peter, 230n1
Book of History (Ch. Shangshu), 15, 44. See also Confucian classics
Book of Rites, 86
books: binding of, 238n20; Buddhist, 116; Chinese, 74–76, 98, 223n18; communal reading of, 57; dissemination of, 87; in the Korean alphabet, 17; letters in the form of, 31, 79, 81, 83–84; novels, 19–20, 22, 30; paratextual elements, 118–20; and printing technology, 119–20, 186–89, 238n20. See also anthologies; Confucian classics; publishing
boomerang letters, 60–61, 63fig., 221n64
broadcasting, 4, 21
bronze vessels, 221n64
Buddhism: and Confucianism, 73, 80, 110, 111, 113, 163; criticism of, 15–16, 233n5; propagation of, 147, 233n12; texts, 15–17, 116
Bureau for the Dissemination of Texts (Pangmun’guk), 232n40
Bureau of Printing Buddhist Sutras (Kan’gyŏng Togam), 15
Burglund, Lars, 220n35
C
calendars and almanacs, 47
calligraphic albums, 52–53; including letters with spiral effect, 53–54, 54fig.
calligraphy: cursive, 55, 220n52; as gift, 220n49; nonlinear styles, 48–49; palace style (kungch’e), 22, 55. See also calligraphic albums
Cammann, Schuler, 220n35
Capital Gazette (Ch. Jingbao), 138
Capital Gazette (Hwangsŏng sinmun), 183–84
Categorized Collection of Letter Forms (Kansik yup’ŏn), 34
Catholic church, 222n83
Ch’ae Chegong, 133
Ch’ae Hongwŏn, 133
Chang, Madam, of Andong, 22
Chang Hŭnghyo, 169
Chaŭi, Queen Dowager, 170, 176
Chen Xianzhang, 80
Cheng Yi, 112
Chi Unyŏng, 185
chibu sangso (political performance with an ax), 189–90, 190fig.
China: books from, 74–75; envoys to, 74–76, 223nn11–12; Han dynasty, 73; letters in, 97; Ming dynasty, 74–75, 102, 168–69, 213–14n7, 223nn12, 223nn15; nonlinear texts, 43, 44–47, 45fig., 221n64; Qing dynasty, 168–69, 173; study in, 75, 223n15; Tang dynasty, 18, 73; tributary system, 11–12, 75, 213–14n7. See also literary Chinese; Neo-Confucianism
Chinese phonology, 14
Cho, Madam, letter to her daughter-in-law, 53fig.
Cho Hanbo, 224–25n54
Cho Hŏn, 189
Cho Ik, 93
Cho Kwangjo, 158–59
Cho Mok, 122, 123, 156
Cho Sik, 89, 162, 163
Ch’oe Ch’iwŏn, 113, 114
Ch’oe Ikhyŏn, 189; boomerang letter of 1903, 63fig.
Ch’oe Malli, 65
Ch’oe Sejin, 214n28
ch’ŏmch’al (“together, read”), 57–60
ch’ŏmsŏ (“together, write”), 57
chŏn (brief diplomatic missives), 12
chŏng (sentiments), 86; Seven Chŏng, 86, 166, 225n55
Chŏng Chiun, 225n57
Chŏng Ch’ŏl, 89
Chŏng Hon, Abbreviated Essence of Master Yi’s Letters, 95–96
Chŏng Hyŏktong, 67
Chŏng Inhong, 115, 162–64
Chŏng Ku, 112
Chŏng Kyŏngse, 88, 95, 234n34; Deliberation on Selected Writings of Zhu Xi, 91–92
Chŏng Mongju, 158
Chŏng Sihan, 95
Chŏng T’aehwa, 27
Chŏng T’ak, 156, 223n11
Chŏng Tojŏn, 75, 213–14n7, 223n11
Chŏng Yagyong, Record for Modeling after T’oegye, 97
Chŏng Yŏch’ang, 158
Chŏng Yuil, 225n56
Ch’ŏnggu namsŭngdo, 58fig.
Chŏngjo, King: father of, 177, 236n110; maninso addressed to, 177–78; royal edicts, 21; secret letters to Sim Hwanji, 27; Select Letters of Zhu Xi, 94
Ch’ŏn’gok Academy, 87, 88, 112. See also Yŏngbong Academy
Chŏson dynasty: establishment of, 74; as Little Middle Kingdom, 169
Chow, Kai-wing, 120
Chōya shinbun (Gazette of the government and the public), 185, 237nn13, 237nn17
Chu Sebung, 101
Chu Silk Manuscript (Changsha Zidanku Chu Boshu), 46, 219n29
chungin class, 41, 219n22
Chungjong, King, 77, 150, 233n17
Ch’unhyang, 26–27
circular letters: of academy scholars, 29, 129–34, 141, 147, 148; in colonial America, 131; of commoners, 182–83; of concubines’ sons, 123–24; of Korean students in Japan, 184; on need for schools for women, 183–84; with note in slanted text, 133, 230n16; printed, 186, 187fig.; published in newspapers, 183–85; sabal t’ongmun, 182–83, 183fig., 237n4; sent by scholars of Andong State School in 1807, 131–34, 132fig.; size of, 33; used for political communication, 130–34, 140–41, 147–48, 153, 154, 155, 171, 172, 180, 182
circular telegrams, 184–85
civil service examinations: boycotts of, 148, 167–68; inclusion of Korean alphabet and Chinese phonology, 14; introduction to Korea, 73; and mastery of epistolary protocol, 12; as path to officialdom, 12, 100, 102; requirements for, 140; Song and Ming, 223n15, 230n1; suspension from, 142, 172, 176
civilization and barbarity, 168–69, 173
Clinton, Hillary, 127
collective activism: and circular letters, 130–34; and contentious performances, 145–46; and identity formation, 168; issue of enshrining former worthies, 157–61; issue of royal mourning rituals, 171–76; and joint memorials, 139–44; records of, 147, 154–55; reduced impact of, 164–68, 172, 176–77; twentieth-century, 189–92; by women, 184. See also joint memorials; local academies; rural scholars
colonial America, 131, 136
Committees of Correspondence (colonial America), 131
commoners: circular letters of, 182–83; petitions of, 232n42
commonplace books, 5
communal reading, 57–60
community compacts (hyangyak), 102
Comprehensive Explanation on the Ceremonies and Rituals (Ŭirye t’onghae), 173
concubines’ sons, 123–24, 182, 229n82
Confucian classics: granted by Ming emperor, 75; and the introduction of literary Chinese, 73; ritual texts, 86, 172–73; standardized meanings of, 15, 29, 157; translation into vernacular Korean, 14–15
Confucian learning in daily practices, 77, 79, 86, 88, 97
Confucian literati: letter writing by, 11–12, 29, 72, 127; and literary Chinese, 65; official and nonofficial scholars, 101–2, 146–47, 176–77; official documents drafted by, 11–12; political activism of, 101, 128–29, 131, 139–43, 146, 149, 154–55, 181, 190; Royal Academy scholars, 131, 140–41, 148, 160, 163, 166, 167, 174, 233n5; scholarly networks, 108, 128–29, 165. See also collective activism; factionalism; literary Chinese; local academies; nonofficial literati; Royal Academy; rural scholars
Confucian rituals, 12, 22, 74, 108–13, 158, 160, 170–76
Confucian Way (i), 90, 110–11, 113, 117, 160, 164, 166
Confucian worthies: enshrinement in Royal Confucian Shrine, 157–61, 234n42; Five Worthies (Ohyŏn), 157, 158–61, 162–65; Four Worthies, 158, 234n42; as models, 115; rituals for past worthies, 99–100, 108–14, 128, 142, 143, 158; Yi I and Sŏng Hon, 165–67
Confucianization, 8, 73–75. See also Neo-Confucianism
contexts, 28, 77, 79–80, 119
cookbooks, 22
Correct Phonology of the Eastern Country (Tongguk chŏngun), 14
correspondence: administrative, 127; between academy scholars, 105–8, 115; between elites and their servants, 21, 216n53; between father and daughter, 35; between husband and wife, 35, 37fig., 39–40, 40fig.; master-disciple, 128; regarding publication, 116–20; secrecy in, 27–28, 87, 216–17n85; of T’oegye, 89, 105–12, 114–15, 117–20, 155–56, 225n76. See also circular letters; women’s letters
court ladies, 21
court newsletters (chobo), 29, 134–38, 141, 231nn29, 231nn31, 231–32n40
critical bibliography, 38–39
critical fabulation, 38
crossed letters, 51–52, 51fig., 61–64, 220n46

D
Daoist canon, 44
Davis, Natalie Zemon, 127
day books, 219n28
Derrida, Jacques, 27, 30
Deuchler, Martina, 226n1
diglossia, 213n1 (chap. 1)
dining hall roster (kwŏndang), 140
diplomatic letters and documents, 11–12; Arabic, 220n47; exchange of state letters (kuksŏ), 12; presented to Hongwu, 75, 213n7, 223n12
Du Fu, 18, 215n34
Dyson, Freeman, 60

E
Eisenstein, Elizabeth, 231n35
Elementary Learning (Sohak), 15
elite women, 7, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24–25, 29
e-mail, 3–6, 127
embroidery, 47
encyclopedias, 34, 35
England: printed newsletters versus scribal journalism, 138; social movements, 233n1
envelopes, 28
epistolary communication, 3–5, 7, 10, 193. See also correspondence; letter writing
epistolary debates, 85–87, 224–25n54
epistolary discourse, 30, 81
epistolary genres, 7–8, 29–31, 33; official, 11–12; political and social, 33, 129, 146, 154, 179, 183, 186, 193. See also administrative documents and record keeping; circular letters; diplomatic letters and documents; joint memorials; memorials to the throne; spiral letters
epistolary networks. 29, 100, 108, 115, 128–31, 135, 181. See also circular letters
estate management, 21, 216n53
Evidential Research on the Mourning Garments (Sangbok kojŏng), 172–73

F
factionalism, 142–44, 161–64, 165–68, 177–78, 236n110. See also Namin faction; Sŏin faction
family structure, Korean and Confucian, 74
Fish, Stanley, “interpretive community,” 108
Five Confucian Worthies (Ohyŏn), 157, 158–61, 162–65
fixity, 231n35
formulaic letters, 12
Four Beginnings, 86, 166, 225n55
Four-Seven Debate, 86–87, 95, 108
Four Worthies (Sahyŏn), 158, 234n42
France: political expression in, 176; remission letters, 127; sharing of letters, 225n58

G
genealogies, 80, 126–27, 130, 186
gift-giving, 3
Go Dowon (Ko Towŏn), 3–7
Grafton, Anthony, 83
grave goods, letters as, 39

H
Ha, Madam, tomb of, 39
Habermas, Jürgen, 105
Haboush, JaHyun Kim, 222n71
Han’gŭl. See Korean alphabet
Han’gŭl day, 238n24
Hansŏng Gazette (Hansŏng sunbo), 185, 231n40
Harvey, Gabriel, 83
Hearn, Maxwell, 217n103
Hebrew texts, 57–59
Heian Japan, women’s epistles in, 47–49, 51
Heller, Natasha, 218n5
hereditary aristocracy, 74, 127
Hetu (Yellow River chart), 44, 47, 220n35
Hŏ Kyun, Tale of Hong Kiltong, 19, 215n44
Hŏ Mok, 170
homemaking, 22
Hong Ch’ŏyun, 235n64
Hong Chuwŏn, 173–74, 175fig.
Hong Myŏngha, 173–74
Hong Ponghan, 41, 236n110
Hongwu, Emperor, 74–75, 213–14n7, 223nn11–12
Hulbert, Homer B., 68–69
human nature and human emotions, 67, 73, 86
Hŭngsŏn Lord Taewŏn, Grand Prince, 180
Huntington, Samuel, 168
husband-wife correspondence, 35, 37fig., 39–40, 40fig.
Hwang Chaesu, 96
Hwang Chini, 18
Hwang Chunnyang, 82, 87, 88, 109–12, 115, 117–18, 228n64
hyangch’al, 13, 214n13
hyangga, 214n13
Hyojong, King, 27, 166, 167, 169, 170
Hyŏnjong, King, 174–76

I
idu (clerk’s readings), 13, 68, 214n13
Illustrated Guide to the Three Relationships (Samgang haengsilto), 15
Im Tam, 143
Im Yŏng, 32fig.
Imgo Academy, 228n64
Imjin War, 21, 55, 56fig., 159, 222n71, 231n29
imperial rescripts (ch’ik), 12
Independent (Tongnip sinmun), 69, 70fig., 184
Injo, King, 165, 166, 170
Injong, King, 140
innovations, diffusion of, 23, 216n68
inp’yŏn (ad hoc messengers), 26
Insŏn, Queen, 170
instructive writs (cho), 12
Internet, 4, 6, 23–24, 193, 238n29
interpreters, letters from, 40–41
Islamic Eurasia, 135
I-you polarity, 30

J
Japan: academies in, 104, 105; colonial rule, 139, 146, 169, 181, 219n24; diplomatic interactions with, 12, 40–41; “exchanged letters,” 34; invasion by, 17, 21, 55; Korean students in, 184; newspapers in, 185–86; women’s epistles, 47–49, 51; writing and calligraphy, 43, 49, 66, 220n52, 237n4. See also Imjin War
Jardine, Lisa, 83
Johns, Adrian, 231n35
joint memorials: case of 1565, 147–54, 155, 156, 234n34; circular letters for preparing, 141; collection of signatures, 141, 167, 172, 232n51; and collective activism of nonofficial scholars, 30, 33, 139, 144; criticism of, 147; effectiveness of, 156–57, 164–68, 172, 176–77; and the enshrinement of worthies, 159–61, 163–65, 166, 235n64; and factional strife, 142–43, 161–67, 235n64; language of, 149–51, 159–60; maninso, 177–81, 190–92, 191fig.; and performative spectacles, 145–46, 151–54, 161, 176, 180, 189–92, 190fig., 191fig., 233n5; requesting charter for Sangye Academy, 168; by Royal Academy scholars, 140–41, 147, 148; on the royal mourning controversy, 171–76; submission process, 141–42; twentieth-century, 189–92, 191fig., 238n24; used by concubines’ sons, 182; by Yŏngnam scholars, 67, 133, 147–48, 153, 166, 171–76, 177, 235n64, 236n98

K
Kaitokudō Academy (Tokugawa Japan), 104
kaksŏ (writing letters separately to each addressee), 57
Kana script, 66
Kandok chŏngyo (The essence of letter writing), 215n34
Kapsin coup, 178–79, 185
kasa verses, 18, 19
Ki Hyojŭng, 87, 95
Ki Taesŭng, 85, 86–87, 95, 120, 225n57
Kim, Madam, tomb of, 39, 40
Kim Ch’anghyŏp, 92
Kim Chinu, 124
Kim Chŏng, Examples and Formats for Korean People (Tongin yesik), 34
Kim Chongjik, 112
Kim Chungch’ŏng, 164
Kim Chun’gŭn, Playing the Diagram of Promotion in Official Positions, 221nn57, 221nn59
Kim Ch’wiryŏ, 225n56
Kim Handong, 178
Kim Han’gi (slave), 125
Kim Hongdo: Appreciation of a Painting, 57, 59fig.; Weaving the Mat, 221n59
Kim Inhu, 87
Kim Koengp’il, 110, 158
Kim Kyegwang, 168
Kim Okkyun, 185–86
Kim Pongjo, 164
Kim Pup’il, 156
Kim Puryun, 147
Kim Sanghŏn, 92, 163
Kim Sŏngil, 88, 225n76; spiral letter from Yi Tŏkhyŏng, 56fig.
Kim Suhang, 92, 173–74
Kim Suhŭng, 92
Kim Sujŭng, 92
Kim Tongp’il, 136
Kim Ugoeng: and the case of Buddhist monk Pou, 147–49, 151–53, 156, 159; Daily Record of the Journey to Seoul, 147, 152, 154–55; imitation of, 155–56, 179, 180; use of performative elements, 151–53, 161
Kim Uong, 88–89
Kim Yung, 97
Kim Yusin, 113–14
kinship networks, 24, 130, 142, 177, 179–80
Ko Towŏn (Go Dowon), 3–7
Kojong, King, 185
kongnon (public and impartial opinion), 149–51, 159–60, 178, 181
Korean alphabet: and Buddhist texts, 15–17; dissemination of, 23–24, 28; and the dissemination of Confucian teachings, 14–15; invention of, 13; and Korean pronunciation, 13–14; and literacy, 13, 14–15, 65; name of, 14; as national script, 17, 189; and novels, 19–20; organized by sound, 14; and poems and songs in Korean, 17–18; social impact of, 8, 20, 23; and the spread of letter writing, 7, 24, 28; and state control of information, 15, 17; and the teaching of foreign languages, 214n28; and texts on practical knowledge, 17; use by male elites, 13, 17–18, 72; use by women, 7, 15, 21; use for economic transactions, 21; use for political communication, 20–21, 222n71; as vulgar script, 65. See also literary Chinese; spiral letters; vernacular Korean
Korean Daily News (Taehan maeil sinbo), 222n91
Korean primers, 68, 69fig.
Koryŏ dynasty: Buddhism and Confucianism in, 15, 73–74; literati, 226n1, 231n32; poetry and songs, 18, 19; presentation of memorials, 139, 189; worthies, 109, 113, 158
kugyŏl (vocal particles), 13, 15, 68, 214n13
Kŭm Nansu, 228n63
Kŭm Ŭnghun, 164
kŭnsil system, 176–77
Kwal Chu, 39
Kwanghae, King, 161, 163, 164
Kwŏn Kŭn, 75, 223n11, 234n39
Kwŏn Sangha, 92
Kwŏn Sangil, 96, 166–67, 234n34
kyŏmin (private servants), 41
Kyŏngju: academies, 113–14, 133, 179; scholars, 113, 114, 133–34; twentieth-century activism, 192
Kyosŏgwan (Editorial Review Office), 77
kyubang kasa verses, 19
kyuhon (palace sit-ins), 153
L
Lee Myung-bak, 190
Leslie, Eliza, 220n46
letters: with accompanying papers (pyŏlchi), 60; American, 218n112; in book form, 83–84; as canonical genre, 121–22; collections of, 29, 77–82; communal reading of, 57; comparison with Internet, 7–9; interception of, 26–27; in Korea versus China, 97; literary Chinese, 10–13, 29, 43, 55, 66, 126; as long-distance discussions, 85–87, 224–25n54; in the medieval Islamic world, 27; and newspapers, 135–36, 184; pedagogical use of, 77–79; physical form, 8, 27, 28–29, 31–33, 36; as private and public, 27–28, 84–85, 86–87; sharing of, 225n58; and sociocultural change, 8–9; and the study of Neo-Confucianism, 77–80, 97–98, 100; written by proxy (ch’ŏnsa), 61; written by women, 38, 47–49, 51, 183–84; written by servants, 21, 41; written on both sides of the page, 52, 53fig., 220n49. See also circular letters; correspondence; epistolary communication; epistolary genres; spiral letters
Letters Exchanged between Two Masters, The, 95
letter-writing manuals, 33–35, 186, 188, 189, 215n34, 217n107, 218n108
Li Hongzhang, 185
Li Ling, 219n29
literacy: in the 1930s, 219n24; of nonelites, 17, 21, 41, 126; of women, 7, 20, 21–22, 29, 68, 215n37. See also Korean alphabet; literary Chinese; vernacular Korean
literary Chinese: and domination of written communication by male elites, 10, 13–15, 25; introduction to Korea, 73; and letter writing, 10–13, 29; letter-writing manuals, 34, 217n107; petitions, 126; poetry, 14, 18, 19; punctuation of, 82; rendering of Korean pronunciation, 13–14, 214n13; spiral letters written in, 29, 43, 55, 66; used by commoners and slaves, 126; women and, 215n37; as written language of Confucian scholarship, 65, 71
Literati Purge of 1545, 159, 162
local academies: abolition of, 144, 180; administrative documents and record keeping, 100, 121–27; architecture of, 108–9; charters for, 143; concubines’ sons at, 123; contrasted with state schools, 99, 102, 108–9; criticism of, 143–44; epistolary networks, 29, 100, 108, 128–31, 181, 230n1; in Japan, 104, 105; master-disciple correspondence, 128; number of, 102, 227n10; and political activism of rural scholars, 142–43, 147, 233–34n21; as public sphere, 105; as publication centers, 116; records of rituals performed, 122; relationship with capital scholars, 143; relationship with the state, 103–5, 124–26, 143–44, 227n18; rituals for past worthies, 99–100, 108–11, 113–14, 126, 158; slaves of, 124–26; T’oegye and, 76–77, 100–101, 103–4, 108–15, 116–17, 122, 227n3. See also rural scholars; T’oegye Yi Hwang
love letters, 39–40
Luo River Script (Luoshu), 44, 47, 220n35; Inner and Outer Diagrams, 45fig.

M
Manchus, 17, 168–69; Qing dynasty, 173
Mangch’ang postal station, 125
maninso, 177–81, 190–92, 191fig.
mantras (chinŏn), 16–17
manuscripts: bodily implications of, 218n5; influence on print, 231n35; of letters, 8, 31, 67–68, 87, 174; newsletters, 138; of novels, 20, 22
marginal space, 37–38, 41–43, 48, 49, 60
martial arts manuals, 17
master-disciple relationships, 96, 128
Mastering Phonology (Yunhui), 14
McGann, Jerome, 218n3
McKenzie, D. F., 218n3
McKitterick, David, 231n35
medical books, 17
memorials to the throne (sangso): on concubines’ sons at local academies, 124; in court newsletters, 135–36; and the kŭnsil system, 176–77; and letter-writing skills, 11, 41; maninso, 177–81, 190–92, 191fig.; by official and nonofficial scholars, 139–41, 176–77; published in newspapers, 185. See also joint memorials
Mencius, 86
messengers, 25–26
Messick, Brinkley, 121
Migang Academy, 187fig.
mind-and-heart (sim), 86
Ming dynasty (China), 74–75, 102, 168–69, 213–14n7, 223nn12, 223nn15
Ministry of Rites, 143
Mongols, 73–74
moral primers, 14–15, 24
morning letters, 3–7
mourning rituals for the royal family, 170–76
Munjŏng, Queen Dowager, 147
munkwa exam, 12
Muyŏl, King, 113–14
Myŏngjong, King, 147

N
Na Sin’gŏl, vernacular letter to his wife, 37fig.
Najita, Tetsuo, 104
Namin faction, 89, 90, 133, 165–66, 170–76, 178
national pension system, 190, 238n24
Neo-Confucianism: and books from China, 74–75; factions of, 89, 90; introduction to Korea, 73–74; Korean tradition distinguished from Chinese, 76, 93, 97; Letters Exchanged between Two Masters, 95; T’oegye Yi Hwang and, 76–80, 84–87, 95, 108; and local academies, 108–12, 111, 113, 143; and politics, 100–102; publications, 116, 119, 120; sociopolitical role, 157; use by state, 157; of Zhu Xi, 80, 92–93, 97–98. See also T’oegye Yi Hwang; Zhu Xi
newspapers, 68, 138–39, 183–86, 231–32n40; use of vernacular script, 69–71, 70fig., 222n91. See also court newsletters (chobo)
No Indo, 223n11
No Kyŏngnin, 109–11, 114
No Susin, 87
nonlinear texts: board games, 56–57, 58fig.; in China and Japan, 43, 44–47, 45fig., 221n64; in Heian women’s epistles, 47–49; and Western influence, 68. See also spiral letters
nonofficial literati: access to court newsletters, 135, 137; access to memorial system, 146–47, 176–77; and joint memorials, 29, 33, 139–44, 162; mastery of letter writing, 127; publication centers, 116; state control of, 101–2. See also joint memorials; local academies; rural scholars
Noron faction, 178, 236n110
Northern Expedition (Pukpŏllon), 169
novels, 19–20, 22, 30
nuptial letters, 12

O
Oksan Academy (Kyŏngju), 179
oral messages, 25–26
Ouyang Xiu, Collected Letters, 34
P
Pae Samik, 119–20
Pae Tŏgŏn, 167
Paegundong Academy, 104
Pak, Madam, letter to her mother, 61fig.
Pak Kŏn’gap, 163
Pak Kwangjŏn, 89, 225n76
Pak Sech’ae: Collection of Omissions from “The Great Compendium of Master Zhu Xi’s Writings,” 93; letters to Im Yŏng, 32fig.
palace style (kungch’e) calligraphy, 22, 55
palindromes, 47
paper, 10, 31, 40; saving of, 48, 49, 51; sock patterns, 22
Pastreich, Emmanuel Yi, 222n72
peasant uprisings, 182, 237n4
petitions, 11, 20, 125–26, 192, 232n42. See also joint memorials
Picture of the Turning Sphere (Xuanjitu), 47
picture-texts-cum-arranged-texts (tuwen bing paiwen), 46
poetry: composed by women, 18–19; exchanges of, 215n34; of Kwŏn Kŭn, 223n11; in literary Chinese, 14, 18, 19; palindromic, 47; sijo and kasa, 18–19; translation into vernacular Korean, 17–18
pokhap (palace sit-ins), 153
political performance, 145–46, 151–54, 161, 176, 180, 233n5; with ax, 189–90, 190fig.; maninso reenactment, 191–92, 191fig.
political rhetoric, 149–51
political telegrams, 184–85
postal system, 25
Pou (Buddhist monk), 147–49, 156, 234n34
preprinted stationery, 49, 50fig., 217n100
printing shops, 186
printing technology, 34, 119, 186–89, 238n20; printed and handwritten newsletters, 137–39, 231nn31, 231nn35. See also newspapers; woodblock printing
procuratorial letters (p’aeji), 126
Protestant missionaries, 68–69
public sphere (Habermas), 105
publishing: academies and, 116–17; commercial publications (panggakpon), 34–35; correspondence regarding, 116–20; publication history of Abbreviated Essence of Zhu Xi’s Letters in late Chosŏn, 87–88, 90. See also books; newspapers
Pugin faction, 162
puhwang (type of punishment), 167, 235n71
punctuation, 68–70, 82, 84
p’yo (formal diplomatic missives), 12
pyŏlchi (accompanying papers), 60
Pyŏn Hyŏp, 149, 233n12
Pyŏngsan Academy, 177

R
Rao Zongyi, 219n29
reciprocity: in epistolary communication, 3–4, 78, 81; in Neo-Confucian practice, 114, 122–23
record keeping, 121–27
Record of Lectures on “The Abbreviated Essence of Zhu Xi’s Letters” (Chusŏ chŏryo kangnok), 90–91, 94, 225n77
Record of Master Zhu Xi’s Conduct (Chuja haengjang), 118
Record of Questions on “The Abbreviated Essence of Zhu Xi’s Letters” (Chusŏ chŏryo kiŭi), 90–91
reverence marks (p’yŏnggwŏl), 68
Rites, Book of, 86
Roh Moo-hyun, 189, 193, 238n29
Royal Academy (Sŏnggyun’gwan), 112, 140–41, 147, 176–77; scholars of, 131, 148, 159–61, 163, 166–67, 174, 233n5
Royal Confucian Shrine (Munmyo), 157–61, 164, 165, 234nn42–43
royal edicts, 134, 161; in vernacular Korean, 21
Royal Secretariat, 21, 134, 136, 137, 142, 174, 177, 232n40; Daily Record, 136–37, 178
rural scholars: circular letters, 29, 129–34, 141, 147, 148; competition with metropolitan elites, 102–3; epistolary networks, 29, 128–31, 181; and factional competition, 161–65; Neo-Confucian studies, 100, 108, 115–16; political participation, 101–2, 104–5, 129–36, 139–41, 144, 145–47, 155–56, 181, 233–34n21; purges of, 101, 103; sarim, 101–2, 226n1; use of kongnon, 149–51, 181. See also circular letters; collective activism; joint memorials; local academies; nonofficial literati; Yŏngnam scholars
Ryu Ijwa, 177

S
sabal t’ongmun (“bowl” letter), 182–83, 183fig., 237n4
Sado, Crown Prince, 177, 180, 236n100
Samgye Academy (Andong), 168
sarim (backwoods scholars), 101–3, 158, 161, 226n1. See also rural literati
scattered writing, 48–49
“scowling” style (hyobinch’e), 55
Scranton, Mary F. B., 68
scrolls, letters as, 31–33, 32fig., 217n103
secondary sons, 123–24, 182, 229n82
secrecy in correspondence, 27–28, 87, 216–17n85
Sejo, King, 15
Sejong, King, 14, 15, 75
Selections of Refined Literature (Ch. Wenxuan; K. Munsŏn), 10
Seneca, moral letters to Lucillius, 85–86
servants. See slaves and servants
Seven Chŏng, 86, 166, 225n55
she association circulars, 230n5
Shirky, Clay, 6
sijo poems, 18–19
Sim Hwanji, 27
Sim Tan, 136
Sima Guang, Etiquette of Letter Writing, 34
Sin Sŏkhyŏng, 167
slaves and servants: African, 38; exchange of letters with, 21, 41, 216n53; as informants for local officials, 171; kyŏmin, 41; literati referred to as, 231n31; marriages between, 125; as messengers, 25–26; as property of local academies, 124; records and rosters, 125; taxes on, 125–26
“sleeve writing,” 48, 49
sŏ/shu (writing), 10–11
Sŏ Myŏngbin, 231n30
Sŏ P’irwŏn, 143
Sŏ Yugu, Surveys on Publications, 116
Sŏak Academy, 113–14, 158
social equality, 68–71
social movements, 233n1. See also collective activism
sock patterns, 22
Sŏin faction, 67, 89, 90, 91, 94, 165–66, 170–74, 176, 236n98. See also Song Siyŏl
Sŏl Ch’ong, 113, 114
Song Chun’gil, 91, 95, 170, 236n98
Sŏng Hon, 87, 89, 165–67
Song Kyuryŏm, 21
Song Myŏnghŭm, letter on preprinted stationery, 50fig.
Sŏng Ŏnjip, 177
Song Pyŏngp’il, letter to his wife, 63fig.
Song Sihyŏng, 166
Song Siyŏl: anthologies of Zhu Xi’s writings, 92, 93; Record of Questions about “The Great Compendium of Master Zhu Xi’s Writings” (Chuja taejŏn ch’aŭi), 91; and the Sŏin faction, 170–72, 174, 215n44; translation of Yulgok, 18, 215n36; view of elite women’s letter writing, 25
Sŏngjong, King, 140, 150
Sŏngju, 88, 109–12, 153
songs, 18–19
Sŏnjo, King, 21, 137–38, 159–60, 163, 231n31
Sosu Academy, 104
spiral letters: aesthetic quality of, 52, 54–55; Arabic diplomatic letters, 220n47; with boomerang effects, 61, 64fig.; from Chosŏn interpreters, 40–41; cognitive and bodily implications, 36, 218n5; compared with Heian women’s epistles, 48; development of, 28–29, 36, 38; as epistolary vogue, 60; and group reading, 55–60; learning of, 64–65; in literary Chinese, 29, 43, 55; Madam Pak’s letter to her mother, 61fig.; motivations for, 49–65; from Na Sin’gŏl to his wife, 37fig.; organization of textual space, 37, 41–43, 42fig., 45, 60, 71; preserved in family archives and tombs, 39–40, 40fig.; in printed publications, 67, 188–89, 188fig., 222n77; in scroll books, 31–33, 32fig.; sophistication of, 65–66, 70–71; and space saving, 49–52; and topics of letters, 43; use by male elites, 67–68, 174; use of term, 218n1; and women’s letter writing, 38, 43, 65–66; from Yi Tansang to Hong Chuwŏn, 173–74, 175fig. See also Yemen: spiral texts
Standard Course in the Studies of Music (Akhak kwebŏm), 18
Sterne, Jonathan, 221n69
Stock, Brian, 221n68
Stories Collected by Sŏng Hŏn (Yongjae ch’onghwa), 56
Straightforward Explanation of Agriculture (Nongsa chiksŏl), 17
Su, Lady, poems of, 47
Su Shi, Collected Letters, 34
Sukchong, King, 165

T
Taebang ch’ogandok (Great way for reading manuscript letters), 188, 188fig.
Tale of Ch’unhyang, 26–27
Tale of Hŭngbu, 230n10
Tarrow, Sidney, 150
taxation, 103, 125–26
textbooks, 34, 88, 186
texts: administrative documents, 121–27; funny digital, 64; “materialist hermeneutics” of, 218n3; physical forms, 218n3; spatial organization, 37, 60, 71; writer’s traces on, 36. See also books; letters; manuscripts; nonlinear texts
textual communities, 64–65, 221n68
Three Kingdoms, 73
Tilly, Charles, 233n1
T’oegye Yi Hwang: Abbreviated Essence of Master Zhu Xi’s Letters, 77–84, 87–91, 93–94, 117–19, 189, 228n63; annotations by, 81–82, 91, 92, 117–19; annotations on, 90–91, 92; anthologized letters of, 83–85, 95–97, 108; on the Confucian Way, 164, 166; correspondence of, 89, 105–12, 114–15, 117–20, 155–56, 225n76; criticism of and backlash against, 91–94, 115; enshrinement as worthy, 122–23, 162–63, 164; and enshrinement of past worthies, 110–14, 159; epistolary debate with Ki Taesŭng, 86–87, 95, 225n57; and the local academy movement, 76–77, 100–101, 103–4, 108–15, 116–17, 122, 227n3; poems in Korean, 18; on political activism, 140, 156, 234n34; preface to Zhu Xi’s letters, 77, 87–88, 118–19; reading of Zhu Xi’s letters, 82–84; Record for Self-Reflection (Chasŏngnok), 84–85; school of, 89–91, 94–97, 122, 133, 147, 156, 162, 164, 166, 169; and Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucian tradition, 80. See also Namin faction; Tosan Academy
Tokyo Daily, 185, 237n13
Tonam Academy (Sangju), 180
Tonghak peasant uprising, 182
t’ongmun. See circular letters
Tosan Academy (Andong), 88, 122–26, 164, 178
tributary system, 11–12, 75, 213–14n7

U
U T’ak, 189
umbrella letters, 237n4

V
van Hensbergen, Claudine, 30
vernacular Korean: horizontal reading, 68; letter-writing manuals, 34, 218n108; letters, 24–25, 216n704; narratives modeled after literary Chinese, 222n72; and national independence, 222n91; novels, 19–20, 22; palace style (kungch’e) calligraphy, 22, 55; in peasants’ circular letters, 182; political communication, 20–21; use for economic transactions, 21; use in government, 222n71; use of word spacing and punctuation, 68–70; wills and inheritance documents, 20–21. See also Korean alphabet; literacy
virtuous women, 54–55

W
Walraven, Boudewijn, 31
Wang, Eugene, 220n35
Wang Kŏn, 73
Wang Xianzhi, 220n49
Wang Xizhi, 220n49
Wang Yangming, 80, 86, 97, 98
Western attire, 178, 180
Western imperialism, 169
Western written culture, 68. See also newspapers
Williams, Raymond, “multiplicity of writing,” 121
wills and inheritance documents, 20–21
Wŏlsŏng Nuclear Power Plant, 192
women’s education, 183–84
women’s letters: in eighteenth-century France, 5; in Heian Japan, 47–49, 51; spiral letters, 38–40, 43, 65–66; written on both sides of the page, 52, 53fig.
women’s literacy, 7, 15, 20, 21–22, 29, 68, 215n37
woodblock printing, 67, 76, 88, 94, 119–20
word spacing, 68–70

X
Xie An, letter from Wang Xianzhi, 220n49

Y
Yangnyŏng, Prince, 216n70
Yellow River Chart (Hetu), 44, 47, 220n35
Yemen, 121; spiral texts, 52, 218n1, 219n10
Yi Ando, 155, 156
Yi Chae, 94, 96, 169
Yi Chehyŏn, 113–14, 234n39
Yi Chŏn, 90, 97
Yi Chŏng, 112–14, 115, 116
Yi Chono, 113–14
Yi Chonyŏn, 109–12
Yi Chun, 90
Yi Hamhyŏng, 225n77
Yi Hang, 87
Yi Hwiil, 169
Yi Hyŏnil, 169
Yi I, 148, 151, 165–67
Yi Ich’ŏm, 234n34
Yi Ik, 95, 96
Yi Inbok, 109–12
Yi Ku, 166–67
Yi Kwangjwa, 136
Yi Kwangsu, Model Letters, 189
Yi Ŏnjŏk, 158–60, 162–64, 224–25n54; Collected Letters, 34
Yi Saek, 234n39
Yi Sangjŏng, 90, 96–97; Abbreviated Essence of Master T’oegye’s Letters, 96–97
Yi Sik, 215n44
Yi Simyŏng, 166, 169, 235n80
Yi Sisu, 96
Yi Sŏnggye, 74
Yi Tansang, 173–74, 236n98; letter to Hong Chuwŏn, 173–74, 175fig.; spiral letter to Sŏin scholars, 67
Yi Tŏkhong, 88, 225n77
Yi Tŏkhyŏng, spiral letter to Kim Sŏngil, 56fig.
Yi U, 177–78
Yi Ŭngt’ae, correspondence with his wife, 39–40, 40fig.
Yŏngbong Academy (Sŏngju), 109–12, 113–14, 158
Yŏngjo, King, 136–37, 176, 231n30, 236n110
Yŏngnam scholars: boycott of civil service examination, 167–68; circular letters, 131–32, 132fig.; collective activism, 145, 171–76; factionalism, 163–64; genealogies of, 126–27; joint memorials presented by, 67, 133, 147–48, 153, 166–67, 171–76, 177, 235n64, 236n98; and the kŭnsil system, 177; maninso submitted by, 177–79, 180–81; political independence from the state, 102; publishing academies, 116; T’oegye school of, 94, 133, 166, 169. See also Andong; Namin faction; T’oegye Yi Hwang
Yongshan Academy (Kyŏngju), 133, 134
Yŏnsan, Prince, 150
Yu Chik, 166–68, 172, 235nn64, 235nn80
Yu Chungnyŏng, 82, 87, 88, 119, 120, 156
Yu Hujo, letter of 1871, 64fig.
Yu Sech’ŏl, 171–76
Yu Sinch’un, spiral letter of 1811, 42fig.
Yu Sŏngnyong, 82, 90, 91
Yu the Great, 44
Yu Unnyong, 119
Yulgok Yi I, 76, 84, 87, 92, 95; Nine Songs about the High Mountain (Kosan kugokka), 18, 215n36
Yun Hyu, 170
Yun Sŏndo, 170
Yun Sun, letter to his elder brother, 54fig.
Yun Tonggyu, spiral letters of, 60, 62fig.
Yun Tusu, 221n64

Z
Zhang Ji, 26
Zhou tradition, 169
Zhoujiatai tomb 30 (Hubei), 219n28
Zhu Xi: anthologies, 91–93; Complete Collection, 77, 81, 82–83, 91, 223n21; enshrinement in Sŏngju, 112; Family Rituals, 109; letters of, 77–84, 87–90, 93–94, 117–19, 189; version of Neo-Confucianism, 92–93, 97–98, 166; writings found in other scholars’ works, 93. See also under T’oegye Yi Hwang

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